A HAND-BOOK 



OF 



THE ENGLISH LMGUAGE, 



FOE THE USE OF 



STUDENTS OF THE UNIVERSITIES AND 
HiaHER CLASSES OF SCHOOLS. 



BY 



R. G. LATHAM, M.D., F.R.S., 

LATB PEOFESSOE OF THE ENGLISH LANGITAGE AND LrTEKATUBE, UNITEESICT 
COLLEGE, LONDON. 



NEW-YORK: 
D. APPLETON & COMPANY, 

443 & 445 BROADWAY. 
1866. 






^K 



Pat. •a«»uk. 



CONTENTS 



PART I. 

GENERAL ETHNOLOGICAL RELATIONS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

CHAPTER I. 

GERMANIC OKIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGK — ^DATE. 

SECTION PAGB 

1. English language not British . . . .1 

2. Real origin German .... 1 

3. Accredited immigrations and settlements . . ,2 

4. 5. Criticism . . . . . 4, 5 

CHAPTER II. 

GERMANIC ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. — ^THE GERMANIC AREA OF THE 
PARTICULAR GERMANS WHO INTRODUCED IT. — EXTRACT FROM BEDA. 

6, Y. Jutes, Angles, and Saxons . , 6 

8, 9. Extract from Beda . . . . 6,1 

10 — 13. Criticism ..... 8 — 11 

14, 15. Angles . . . . . 11, 12 

16. Saxons of Beda ..... 12,13 

lY. Anglo-Saxon area ... 13 

18, 19. The Frisians . . . . 13, 14 

20. Anglo-Saxon area ..... 14 



VI COJSTTEN'TS. 



CHAPTER in. 

OF THE DIALECTS OF THE SAXON AEEA, AXD OF THE SO-CALLED 
OLD SAibX. 

SECTION pj^GB 

21 — 29. Old Saxon and Anglo-Saxon . . 16, 17 



CHAPTER lY. 

AFFDmnS OF THE ENGLISH WITH THE LANGTAGIS OF GERMA>T AXD 
SCA>1)I>-ATIA. 

80, 81. Gothic languages . . . 18 

82—84 Divisions of tlie Gottdc stock . . 18 

35. Moeso-GotMc . . . . .19 

36. Old High German . . . . 19 

37. Lovr German . . , . .19 

38. Frisian and Dutch . . . . 19 

39. PJatt-Deutsch ..... 20 

40. 41. Comparison .... 21 — 23 

CHAPTER Y. 

ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. GEEMANIC ELEiEENTS. 

THE ANGLES. 

42. Analysis . .... 24 

43 — 54. Angles — their relations . . , 24 — 28 

55, 56. The Frisians . . . . . 29, 30 

CHAPTER YI 

THE CELTIC STOCK OF LANGUAGES AND THEIR RELATIONS TO THE 
ENGLISH. 

57. Branches of the Celtic stock . . . 33 

58—60. Structure of Celtic tongues . . . 81—33 

61—63. The Picts . . . ... 33—86 



CONTENTS. 



vu 



CHAPTER VII. 

THE ANGLO-NORMAN, AND THE LANGUAGES OF THE CLASSICAL STOCK. 



SECTION 

64. The classical languages 
65 — 67. Latin branch 
68, 69. Norman French 



FAOB 

36 

36—40 

40.41 



PART 11. 

HISTORY AND ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 





CHAPTER L 




HISTORICAL AND LOGICAL 


ELEMENTS CF THE ENGLISH 


LANGUAGE. 


70. Celtic elements 


. 


45 


71. Latin of first period 


, 


46 


12. Anglo-Saxon 


. . 


47 


73. Danish or Norse 


, 


47 


74. Eoman of second period 


. 


49 


75. Anglo-Norman element 


, 


49 


76. Indirect Scandinavian elements 


50 


77. Latin of third period 


, . 


51 


78. Latin of fourth period 


.• • • 


51 


79. Greek 


. 


52 


80—82. Tables 


• • • 


. 53—65 


83—90. Miscellaneons elements 


55—60 


91—94. Hybridism and new 


•words 


. 60—62 


95. Historical and logical analysis 


68 




CHAPTER n. 





RELATION OF THE ENGLISH TO THE ANGLO-SAXON, AND 
STAGES OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



96. Ancient and modern tongues 

97. Details 

98. Stages of the English language 



64 

65—68 

68 



\111 CONTENTS. 



99. Semi-Saxon ..... 69 

100—103. Old English, (fcc. . . . . TO— T2 

104. Present tendencies .... '73 



PART III. 



CHAPTER I. 

GES*EEIAL ^ATTKE KSX> CEETAIX PROPERTIES OF ARTICULATE SOUNDS. 

105. Spelling and speaking . . , . '7'? 

106. Sounds and syllables .... "79 

107. Vowels ..... 79 

108. Divisions ..... 80 

109. Sharp and flat sounds . . . .80 

110. Contiauous and explosiye ... 80 

111. General statements . . . 81 

112. The sound of A . . . . 81 

CHAPTER II. 

SYSTEM OF ARTICULATE S0IIN1)S. 

113. Certain foreign sounds . , . .82 

114. System of mutes . . .82 

115. Lenes and aspirates . . . 83 

116. Fourfold character of mutes ... 84 
IIY. Y and w . . . . .84 
118, 119. Diphthongs .... 84 

120. Compound sounds . . . .85 

121. Ng . . . , , 85 

122. 123. Broad, slender; long, short; dependent^ independent 

vowels . . . . . 86, 86 

124— 126. System of sounds . . . 86,87 



CONTENTS. 



12 



CHAPTER IIL 



OF CERTAIN COMBINATIONS OF ARTICULATE SOUNDS. 



127. Sharp and flat mutes 

128. Unstable combinations 

129. Efiect of 2/ 

180, 131. Double consonants rare 
132. True aspirates rare 



CHAPTER IV. 

EUPHONY AND THE PERMUTATION OF LETTERS. 



133. Euphony 
134 Permutation 



CHAPTER V. 

ON THE FORMATION OF SYLLABLES. 



135. Syllabification 



PACJE 

88 
89 
89 
89 
90 



92 
9S 



96—97 



CHAPTER VI. 

ON QUANTITY. 

136. Long and short sounds 

137. Quantity of vowels— of syllables 

138. Classical and English measurements , 

CHAPTER VII. 

ON ACCENT. 

139. Place of accents . 

140. Distinctive accents 

141. Emphasis 

CHAPTER VHL 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

142. Orthoepy 

143 — 146. Principle of an alphabet . 

1* 



98 
98 
99 



101 
101 
102 



103 
103—106 



CONTENTS 



SECTION 






PAGB 


147. Violations of it 


. 




105 


148. Exiles 


. 


, , 


107 


149—151. Details of Englisli . 




. 107—109 


152. Insufficiency 


. 


, 


109 


153. Inconsistency 


, 




109 


154. Erroneousness 


. 


. . 


110 


155. EedtmdancY 


, , 




110 


156. Unsteadiness 


, 


, , 


110 


157. Other defects 


, 




111 


15S. Historical proprietv . 




113 


159. Conrentional sp 


slling 




113 




CHAFIJill IX. 





EISTOEICAL SKETCH OF THE ES'GLISH AXPHABET. 

160—166. Phcenician, Greek, Eoman stages . 116—124 

166—172. Anglo-Saxon alphabet . . . 124 — 126 

173. Anglo-Xorman alphabet .... 126 

174. Extract from Ormulum ■ . . . 127 

175. Order of alphabet . . . .128 



PART IT. 

ETT3I0L GY. 



CHAPTEE L 

ox THE PEOYXS-CE OF ETYMOLOGY. 

176 — 179. Meaning of term 

CHAPTER n. 

ON GEN-DEE, 

180. Boy and girl . : 

181. Jl/a n-serYant and maid-sevYSUit , 

182. 183. Forms like genitrix 



131—133 



134 
134 
135 



CONTENTS. 



XI 



SECTION PAGB 

184. Forms like domina .... 136 

185—189. Gendera in English . ~ . . 136, 137 

190 — 192. The sun in his glory; the moon in hev wane . 138 

193. Miscellaneous forms . . . . 139 — 142 



CHAPTER III. 



T£[E NTTMBEBS. 



194 — 19Y. Numbers in English 

198. Rule 

199. Remarks 

200. Addition of -es 

Pence, alms, <fec. 
Mathematics 

201. Children 

202. Form in. -en 

203. Men, feet, <fec. . 

204. Brethren, &c 

205. Houses 

206. Wives, &c 



143, 144 
145 
145 
146 
147 
147 
149 
150 
150 
150 
152 
162 



CHAPTER IV 



ON THE OASES. 



207 — 211. Nature of cases 

212. Accusatives 

213. Datives 

214. Genitives . 

215. Instrumental 

All the better 

216. Determination of cases 

217. Analysis of cases 

218. Form in -s 



154—156 
156 
157 
157 
158 
158, 159 
159 
160 
160 



CHAPTER V. 

THE PERSONAL PKONOUNS. 



219, 220. I, we, us, &c. 
221. You 



162 
162 



XU CONTENTS. 

SECTION PAOB 

222. 3fe . . . . . . 163 

223—225. Cautions . . . . 163, 164 

CHAPTER VL 

ON THE TRUE REFLECTIVE PRONOUN IN THE GOTHIC LANGUAGES, AND ON ITS 
ABSENCE IN ENGLISH. 

226. How far found in English .... 165 
CHAPTER VH. 

THE DEilONSTRATIYE PRONOUNS, ETC. 

22Y. Jle, she, it . . . . . 166 

228. She . . , . , . 166 

229. Her, him, his, its, &c. . . . . 161 

230. T/icirs . . . . . . 16*7 

231. Table . . . . . 168 

232. These . . . . . .169 

233. T/iose ..... ITI 

CHAPTER YHI. 

THE RELATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, AND CERTAIN OTHER PRONOUNS. 

234. Who, what, &c. . . . . 1*73 

235. Same, <fec. ..... 173 

23G. Other, whether . . . 177 

CHAPTER IX. 

ON CERTAIN FORMS IN -ER, 

237 — 239. Idea expressed by -er . . . 179 — 181 

CHAPTER X 

THE COMPARATIVE DEGREE. 

240. Form in -s . . . . .182 

241. JSlder, &c. . . " . . . 188 

242. Eafher . . • . . .183 



CONTENTS. ym 

BEOTION PAGE 

243, 244. Excess of expression .... 183 
245— 247. Better ..... 183—185 

248. Worse . . . . . : 185 

249. 3£ore ..... 185 

250. Less . . . . . .185 

251—253. Ifear, &c. . . . . 186 

254. Origin of superlative . . • . 186 

CHAPTER XI. 

IHE SUPERLATIVE DEQllEE. 

255, 256. Former . . . . . 188 
25Y. Nearest . . , . . . 188 

258. I\ext ..... 188 

259, 260. Upmost, &c. . . . . . 189, 190 

CHAPTER XII. 

THE CARDINAL NUMBERS. 

261. How far undeclined . . . .191 

CHAPTER XIII. 

TEffi ORDINAL NUMBERS. 

262 — 264. Seven, nine, ten . . . 192 

265, 266. Thirteen, thirty .... 193 

m 

CHAPTER XIV. 

THE ARTICLES. 

26Y. -4, an, the . . , . . , 194 

CHAPTER XV. 

DIMINUTIVES, AUGMENTATTVES, AND PATRONTMICS. 

268—270. Diminutives .... 197—199 

271. Augmentatives . . . . . 200 

272. Patronymics . . . . 200, 201 



xiv CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER XVL 

r 

GENTILE FORMS. 

SECTION FAOB 

2Y3. Wales ..... 202 

CHAPTER XVII. 

ON THE CONNEXION BETWEEN THE NOUN AND VERB, AND ON THE INFLECTION 
OF THE INFiMTlVK MOOD. 

274 — 281. The verb, how far a noun . . . 203 — 206 

CHAPTER XYHI. 

ON DERIVED VERBS. 

282. Divisions of verbs .... 207 

282. Derivation . ... 208, 209 

CHAPTER XIX. 

ON THE PERSONS. 

283. Persons in English .... 210 

284. 285. Historical view .... 211 

286. Form in -^ . . . . . 212 

287. Thou spahesty <fec. . . , 212 

288. Wel<yves ..... 213 

CHAPTER XX. 

ON THE NITMBEES OF VERBS. 

289. Numbers in English .... 214 

290. Ran, run, &c. . . . . • 216 

CHAPTER TTT. 

ON MOODS. 

291—292. Moods in English . . ., . 216 



CONTENTS. 



XV 



CHAPTER XXII. 



ON TENSES m GENERAL. 



BEOnOM 

293. Strike, struck 
294 — 296. "ETVJTToy, <fcc 
29*7. Reduplication 
298. Weak or strong 



PAOB 

217 

21Y, 218 

219 

220 



CHAPTER XXTTT. 



THE STKONa TENSES. 



299. Sing, sang, sung 
800—303. Tables 



_221 
222—225 



CHAPTER XXIV. 



THE WEAK TENSES. 



804. Stabbed, &c 
305 — 307. Divisions 
800. Bought, sought 
309. Forms in -te and -od^ 
810—312. Bred, beat, &c 

313. Leave, left 
814. Made, had 

314. Would, should, could 

315. Aught . 

816. Burst, must, &c. 

817. This will do 

318. Mind 

319. Tode 
820. Bid 



226 
227, 228 
228 
229 
230 
231 
231 
231 
231 
232 
233 
234 
284 



CHAPTER XXY. 



ON CONJUGATION. 



821, 322. "Weak and strong conjugations natural 



285— 237 



XVI 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER XXVI. 



DEFECTIVENESS AXD nmEGULAKITY 



SECTION 




PAQB 


323—325. Irregularity 




238 


326. Vital and obsolete processes . 


. 


240 


32Y. Processes of necessity, &c. 




241 


328. Ordinary processes 


. 


241 


329. Positive 




242 


330. Normal . 


, 


242 


331. Could 




243 


332. Quoth . 


, 


244 


333. Real irregular verbs few 




244 



CHAPTER XXVH. 

THE IMPEKSONAL VEKBS. 

334, 335. Me-seems, me-Usteth 

CHAPTER XXVHL 



246 



THE VERB SUBSTANTIVE. 



336. Not irregular 

337. Was 
338—341. Be . 

342. An 

343. Worth . 



247 
24Y 
248, 249 
249 
250 



344. Forms in -ing , 

345. Forms in -ung 



CHAPTER XXIX. 

THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 



CHAPTER XXX. 



251 
252 



346. Forms in -en 
84Y, 348. JDrunJcen 



THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 



254 
254 



BECTION 

349. Forlorn 

350. Forms in -ed 

351. The prefix Y 



CONTENTS. 



XVll 

PAGB 

255 
255 
256 



CHAPTER XXXL 





COMPOSITION. 




352 — 357. Nature of compounds 


. 258—261 


358—361. Accent 


, 


261—266 


362. Obscure compounds 


. 


266 


363—365. Exceptions . 


. 


266, 267, 268 


866. Peacock, peahern 


. 


269 


367. Nightingale 


. 


269 


368. Improper compounds 


\ 


270 


369. Decomposites 


. 


270 


370. Combinations 


. 


270, 271 



CHAPTER XXXIL 

ON DERIVATION AND INFLECTION. 

371—373. Their nature 



272—275 



CHAPTER XXXIII. 



374, 375. Their division 
376—379. Adverbs of deflection 
380. Darkling 



276 

277 
278 



CHAPTER XXXIY. 



ON CERTAIN ADVERBS OF PLACE. 



381—384. Hither, thither, &c. 

385. Hence, &c. 

386. Yonder . , . 

387. Anon 



279 
280 
280 
281 



CHAPTER XXXy. 

ON WHEN, THEN, AND THAN. 



888, 389. Their origin 



282 



XVIU 



CONTENTS. 



SECTION 

390. Prepositions 

391. Conjunctions 

392. Yes, No 

393. Particles 



CHAPTER XXXVI. 

PREPOSITIONS AND CONJUNCTIONS. 



PASS 

283 
283 
283 
283 



CHAPTER XXXYH. 

ON THE GBATVTNtATIOAL POSIHON OF THE WORDS mine AND thine. 

894 — i07. Equivalent to mens and tuus, rather than possessive 

284—290 



CHAPTER XXXYHI. 

ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE WEAK PRETERITE. 



408. Grimm's view 

409, 410. Remarks of Dr. Trithen 



291 
291—293 



PAET V. 



SYNTAX. 

CHAPTER I. 

ON SYNTAX IN GENERAL. 

411, 412. Syntax 

413. Personification 

414. Ellipsis 

415. Pleonasm 

416. Leugma 

41Y. Pros to semainomenon . 

418. Apposition 

419. Collectiveness . 



294 
294 
295 
296 
295 
296 
296 
29*7 



CONTENTS. XIX 

SECTION PAGB 

420. Reduction . . . . .29*7 

421. Determination of part of speech . . . 298 
422—424. Convertibility . . . 298, 299 

425. The BlacTcs of Africa . . . . 299 

426. None of ymr if 8 . - . . . , 300 

427. Convertible words numerous in English . . 300 

CHAPTER II. 

SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES. 

428. Eundell and Bridge's . . . . 301 

429. Right and left . . . . 301 

CHAPTER III. 

SYNTAX OF ADJECniVES. 

430. Pleonasm . . . . .302 

431. Collocation . . . . . 302 

432. Government • . . . , 302 

433. More wise, wiser . . . , 303 

434. TIiehQiiQvofthetwo . . . .304 

435. Syntax of adjectives simple . . . ^ 304 

CHAPTER ly. 

SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. 

436. Pleonasm ..... 805 

437. Father's, not father his .... 305 
488. Pleonasm and ellipses allied , . , 306 

CHAPTER V. 

THE TRUE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

439. Pronomen reverentice .... 807 

440. Dativiis ethicus ... 307 

441. Reflected pronoun .... 307 

442. Reflected neuters . . . 308 

443. Equivocal reflective . . , , 308 



XX CONTKN'TS. 

CHAPTEE VL 

0>- THE SYNTAX OF THE DEMiOXSrEATTTE PEOXOUXS, AXD THE PEOXOrXS 
OF THE THIRD PERSOX. 

SECTION ' FAOa 

444^ 445. Mis and its . . . , 310, 311 

CHAPTER YIL 

0>' THE COXSTEUCnOX OF THE ^VOED Self. 

446, U1. Myself, himself cfcc. . . . 312, 313 

CHAPTER YHL 

OX THE P05SESSITE PEOXOUXS, 

448 — iol. 2fy and mine .... 314 — 316 
CHAPTER IX. 

THE EELATTTE PEOXOO'S. 

452—456. Their concord .... 317, 318 

457. Ellipsis . . . .318 

458. Eqiiiyocal antecedent .... 319 

CHAPTER X. 

ox THE IXTEEEOGATrVE PEOXOUX. 

459. 460. Direct and oblique questions . . . . 320 

CHAPTER XI. 

THE EECIPEOCAL PEOXOUXS. 

461, 462. Their constrnction ... 322, 323 

CHAPTER Xn. 

THE IXDETEKMItfATE PEOXOrXS. 

463—466. Use oi it . . . . 324^ 325 

467, 468. Use of the-m, . . . . .325 



SECTION 

469. A and the 



CONTENTS. 
dkAPTER XIII. 

TBDE ARTICLES. 

CHAPTER XIV. 

THE NUMERALS. 



XXI 



4*72 — 474. Their division 



470. Their numbers 

471. First two, and two first . 

CHAPTER XV. 

ON VERBS IN GENERAL. 

CHAPTER XVI. 

THE CONCORD OF VERBS. 

475, 476. Rules .... 

477. It is I your master who command (commands) you 

478. Concord of number 

479. Subject and predicate of different numbers 

CHAPTER XVII. 

ON THE GOVERNMENT OF VilRBS. 



480. Of two kinds 



481. JDying-day 

482. I am beaten 



483, 484. The infinitive 
485, The imperative 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

ON THE PARTICIPLES. 

CHAPTER XIX. 

ON THE MOODS. 



327 
327 



328, 329 



330—332 
332—334 

334, 335' 

335, 336 



336, 337 



388 

338 



340 
341 



xxn 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER XX. 

ON THE TENSES. 
SECTION 

486. Present 

486, 487. Preterite . 

CHAPTER XXI. 

SYNTAX OF THE PERSONS OF VERBS. 

488, 489. Tlieir concord 

CHAPTER xxn. 

ON THE VOICES OF VERBS. 



490. Hight 



CHAPTER XXIH. 

ON THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 



491. Their classification . 

492. I have ridden . 

493. I am to speak 

494. I am to blame 

495. I am beaten 



CHAPTER XXIV. 



OF ADVERBS. 



496, 49Y. Tlieir syntax simple 

498. Termination -ly 

499. To walk and ride . 
600. From whence, <fcc. 



501. Climb up a tree 
602. Part of the body 



CHAPTER XXY. 

ON PREPOSITIONS. 



356 
356 



CONTENTS. XXIU 
CHAPTER XXVI. 

ON CONJUNCTIONS. 

SECTION PAGE 

503, 504. Their nature . . . . 357—359 

505. Their government .... 359 

506—511. The subjunctive mood . . . 359—364 

512. Use of that .... 364 

513. Succession of tenses . t 864 
614. Disjunctives .... 365 

CHAPTER XXVII. 

THE SYNTAX OF THE NEGATIVE. 

515. Its place . ... . 366 

516. Its distribution .... 366 

517. Two negatives .... 367 
618, Questi'tns of appeal - . . . . 367 

CHAPTER XXVIII. ' 

ON THE CASE ABSOLUTE. 

519. Its par sipial character . . . 369 



PART VI. 



PROSODY. 



520. De? Vation of the word . . , 371 

521, 52/ Importance of accent . . . 371 
523—526. Measures . . . 372, 373 
527. Metrical notation .... 374 
528—535. Rhyme . . . 374—377 
536. Blank verse . . . . .377 
5*<7, ^S8. Last syllable indifferent . . 378 

'I " to. Names of common English metres 379 — 384 



XXIV CONTENTS. 

PAKT yii. 

DIALECTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

SECTION PAGB 

541. Saxons and Angles .... 385 

542—544. Dialects not coincident . . 385, 386 

545, 546. Traces of the Danes . . . 386, 387 

547 Mercian origin of tlie written English . . - . 88Y 

Notes . . ... 898 



AN INTRODUCTION 



TO TUE STUDY OF 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



PART I. 

GENIvRAL ETimOLOaiCAL EELATIONS OF THE ENGLISB 
LANaUAaE. 



CHAPTER I. 

GERMANIC ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. DATE. 

§ 1. The first point to be remembered in the history 
of tbe English language, is that it was not the primitive 
and original tongue of any of the British Islands, nor 
yet of any portion of them. Indeed, of the lohole of Great 
Britain it is not the language at the present moment. 
Welsh is spoken in Wales, Manks in the Isle of Man, 
and Scotch Gaelic in the Highlands of Scotland ; besides 
which there is the Irish Gaelic in Ireland. 

§ 2. The next point to be considered is the real origin 
and the real affinities of the English language. 

Its real origin is on the continent of Europe, and its 
real affinities are with certain languages there spoken. 
To speak more specifically, the native country of the 



2 GEEilAXIC OEIGrN" OF 

English language is Germany ; and the Germanic lan- 
guages are those that are the most closely connected 
with our OTTn. In Germany, languages and dialects 
allied to each other and allied to the mother-tongue of 
the English have been spoken from times anterior to 
history ; and these, for most purposes of philology, may 
be considered as the aboriginal languages and dialects of 
that country. 

§ 3. Accredited details of the different imm,igrations 
from Germany into Britain. — Until lately the details 
of the different Germanic invasions of England, both 
in respect to the particular tribes by which they were 
made, and the order in which they succeeded each other, 
were received with but little doubt, and as little criti- 
cism. 

Respecting the tribes by which they were made, 
the current opinion was, that they were chiefly, if not 
exclusively, those of the Jutes, the Saxons, and the 
Angles. 

The particular chieftains that headed each descent 
were also supposed to be known, as well as the different 
localities upon which they descended.^ These were as 
follows : — 

First settlement of invaders from Germany. — The 
account of this gives us a. d. 449 for the first perma- 
nent Germanic tribes settled in Britain. Ebbsfleet, in 
the Isle of Thanet, was the spot where they landed; 
and the particular name that these tribes gave themselves 
was that of Jutes. Their leaders were Hengist and Horsa. 
Six years after their landing they had established the 
kingdom of Kent ; so that the county of Kent was the 
first district where the original British was superseded 
by the mother-tongue of the present English, introduced 
fi:om Germany. 



THE ENGLISH LAis^GUAGE. 3 

Second settlement of invaders from Germany. — a. d. 

477 invaders from ^S'ortliern Germany made the second 
permanent settlement in Britain. The coast of Sussex 
was the spot whereon they landed. The particular name 
that these tribes gave themselves was that of Saxons. 
Their leader was Ella. They established the kingdom of 
the South Saxons (Sussex or Sub-Seaxe) ; so that the 
county of Sussex was the second district where the origin- 
al British was superseded by the mother-tongue of the pre- 
sent English, introduced from Germany. 

Third settlement of invaders from Germany. — a. d. 
495 invaders from Northen Germany made the third per- 
manent settlement in Britain. The coast of Hampshire 
was the spot whereon they landed. Like the invaders 
last mentioned, the&e tribes were Saxons. Their leader 
was Cerdic. They established the kingdom of the West 
Saxons (Wessex or West-Seaxe) ; so that the county of 
Hants was the third district where the original British 
was superseded by the mother-tongue of the present Eng- 
lish, introduced from Germany. 

Fourth settleinent of invaders from Germany. — a. d. 
530, certain Saxons landed in Essex, so that the county of 
Essex [East-Seaxe] was the fourth district where the orig- 
inal British was superseded by the mother-tongue of the 
present English, introduced from Northern Germany. 

Fifth settlement of invaders from Germany. — These 
were Angles in Norfolk and Suffolk. The precise date 
of this settlement is not known. The fifth district where 
the original British was superseded by the mother-tongue 
of the present English was the counties of Norfolk and 
Suffolk ; the particular dialect introduced being that of 
the Angles. 

Sixth settlement of invaders from Germany. — a. d. 
547 invaders from Northern Germany made the sixth 



4 GERMAJS^IC OEIGIN OF 

permanent settlement in Britain. The southeastern 
counties of Scotland, between the rivers Tweed and 
Forth, were the districts where they landed. They were 
of the tribe of the Angles, and their leader was Ida. The 
south-eastern parts of Scotland constituted the sixth dis- 
trict where the original British was superseded by the 
mother-tongue of the present English, introduced from 
Northern Germany. 

§ 4. It would be satisfactory if these details rested 
upon contemporary evidence. This, however, is far from 
being the case. 

1. The evidence to the details just given, is not his- 
torical, but traditional. — a, Beda,^ from whom it is chiefly 
taken, wrote nearly 300 years after the supposed event, 
i. e., the landing of Hengist and Horsa, in a. d. 449. 

b. The nearest approach to a contemporary author is 
Gildas,^ and he wrote full 100 years after it. 

2. The account of Hengisfs and Horsd's landing, 
has elements which are fictional rather than historical — 
a. Thus " when we find Hengist and Horsa approaching 
the coasts of Kent in three keels, and ^lli effecting a 
landing in Sussex with the same number, we are remind- 
ed of the Gothic tradition which carries a migration of 
Ostrogoths,^ Yisigoths, and Gepidse, also in three vessels, 
to the mouth of the Vistula." — Kemble, " Saxons in Eng- 
land." 

b. The murder of the British chieftains by Hengist 
is told totidem verbis, by Widukind^ and others, of the 
Old Saxons in Thuringia. 

c. Geoffry of Monmouth® relates also, how " Hengist 
obtained from the Britons as much land as could be 
enclosed by an ox-hide ; then, cutting the hide into 
thongs, enclosed a much larger space than the grantors 
intended, on which he erected Thong Castle — a tale too 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 5 

familiar to need illustration, and whicli runs throughout 
the my thus of many nations. Among the Old Saxons, 
the tradition is in reality the same, though recorded with 
a slight variety of detail. In their story, a lapfull of 
earth is purchased at a dear rate from a Thuringian; 
the companions of the Saxon jeer him for his imprudent 
bargain ; but he sows the purchased earth upon a large 
space of ground, which he claims, and, by the aid of his 
comrades, ultimately wrests it from the Thuringians." 
— -Kemble, " Saxons in England." 

3. There is direct evidence in favour of their having y 
been German tribes in England anterior to a. d. 447. — a. 
At the close of the Marcomannic war,'' Marcus Anto- 
ninus transplanted a number of Germans into Britain. 

b. Alemannic auxiliaries served along with Roman 
legions under Valentinian.^ 

c. The Notitia utriusque Imperii^^ of which the latest 
date is half a century earlier than the epoch of Hengist, 
mentions, as an officer of state, the Comes littoris Sax- 
onici 'per Britannias ; his government extending along 
the coast from Portsmouth to the Wash. 

§ 5. Inference. — As it is nearly certain, that 449 
A. D. is not the date of the first introduction of German 
tribes into Britain, we must consider that the displace- 
ment of the original British began at an earlier period 
than the one usually admitted, and, consequently, that it 
was more gradual than is usually supposed. 

Perhaps, if we substitute the middle of the fourth, 
instead of the middle of the ffth century, as the epoch of 
the Germanic immigrations into Britain, we shall not bo 
far from the truth. 



GERMA^^IC OKIGIN OF 



CHAPTER II. 

GERMANIC ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANi^UAGE. — -THE GER- 
MANIC AREA OF THE PARTICULAR, GERMANS WHO INTRO- 
DUCED IT. EXTRACT FROM BEDA. 

§ 6. Out of the numerous tribes and nations of Ger- 
manyj three liave been more especially mentioned as the 
chief, if not the exclusive, sources of the present English 
population of Great Britain. These are the Jutes^ the 
Saxons^ and the Angles. 

§ T. Now, it is by no means certain that this was the 
case. On the contrary, good reasons can be given for 
believing that the Angles and Saxons were the same 
people, and that no such nation as the Jutes ever left 
Germany to settle in Great Britain. 

§ 8. The chief authority for the division of the Ger- 
man invaders into the three nations just mentioned is 
Beda ; and the chief text is the following extract from 
his " Ecclesiastical History." It requires particular 
attention, and will form the basis of much criticism, and 
frequently be referred to. 

" Advenerunt autem de tribus Germanise populis for- 
tioribus, id est Saxonibus, Anglis, Jutis. De Jutarum 
origine sunt Cantuarii, et Yictuarii, hoc est ea gens quae 
Vectam tenet insulam et ea quae usque hodie in pro- 
vincia Occidentalium Saxonum Jutarum natio nomi- 
natur, posita contra ipsam insulam Yectam. De 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 7 

Saxonibus, id est, ea regione quae nunc Antiquorum 
Saxonum cognominatur, venere Orientales Saxones, Me- 
ridiani Saxones, Occidui Saxones. Porro de Anglis hoc 
est de ilia patria quae Angulns dicitur, et ab illo tem- 
pore usque bodie manere desertus inter provincias Ju- 
tarum et Saxonum perhibetur, Orientales Angli, Me- 
diterranei Angli, Merci, tota Northanhymbrorum pro- 
genies, id est illarum gentium quae ad Boream Humbri 
fluminis inhabitant, cseterique Anglorum populi sunt 
orti." — " Historia Ecclesiastica," i. 15. 

§ 9. This was written about a.d. 731, 131 years 
after the introduction of Christianity, and nearly 300 
after the supposed landing of Hengist and Horsa in 
A.D, 449, 

It is the first passage which contains the names of 
either the Angles or the Jutes. Gildas, who wrote more 
than 150 years earlier, mentions only the Saxons — " fero- 
cissimi illi nefandi nominis Saxones^ 

It is, also, the passage which all subsequent writers 
have either translated or adopted. Thus it re-appears in 
Alfred, and again in the Saxon Chronicle. '° 



** Of Jotuna comon Cantware From the Jutes came the in- 

" and Wihtware, )»set is seo habitants of Kent and of Wight, 

" maeiaS ]7e nu earda]? oc Wiht, that is, the race that no"W dwells 

" and ]?«et cynn on "West-Sexnm in Wight, and that tribe amongst 

" Se man gyt hast lutnacyun, the West-Saxons which is yet 

" Of Eald-Seaxum comon East- calkd the Jute tribe. From the 

" Seaxan, and Su$-Seaxan and Old-Saxons came the East-Sax- 

" West-Seaxan. Of Angle co- ons, and South-Saxons, and West- 

" mon (se a siSSan stod westig Saxons. From the Angles, land 

" betwix lutum and Seaxum) (which has since always stood 

" East - Engle, Middel - Angle, waste betwixt the Jutes and Sax- 

" Mearee, and ealle Nor^ym- ons) came the East- Angles, Mid- 

" brn. ' die- Angles, Mercians, and all the 

Northumbrians. 



8 GERMANIC OEIGIN OF 

§ 10. A portion of these extracts will now be sub- 
mitted to criticism ; that portion being the statement 
concerning the Jutes. 

The words usque hodie — Jutarum natio nominatur 
constitute contemporary and unexceptionable evidence to 
the existence of a people with a name like that of the 
Jni6s in the time of Beda — or a. d. 731. 

The exact name is not so certain. The term Jht- 
nacyn from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is in favour of 
the notion that it began with the sounds of j and w, in 
other words that it was Jut. 

But the term Geatura, which we find in Alfred, favours 
the form in g followed by ea. 

Thirdly, the forms Wihtware, and Wihttan, suggest 
the likelihood of the name being Wiht. 

Lastly, there is a passage in Asserius'^ which gives 
us the form Gwith — '• Mater " (of Alfred the Great) 
" quoque ejusdem Osburgh nominabatm*, religiosa nimium 
foemina, nobilis ingenio, nobihs et genere ; quae erat 
filia Oslac famosi pincernse ^thelwulf regis ; qui Oslac 
Gothus erat natione, ortus enim erat de Gothis et 
Jutis ; de semine scilicet Stuf et Wihtgur, duorum fratrum 
et etiam comitum, qui accepta potestate Yectis insulae 
ab avunculo suo Cerdic rege et Cynric filio suo, conso- 
brino eorum, paucos Britones ejusdem insulas accolas, 
quos in ea invenire potuerant, in^pco qui dicitur, 
Gwithgarahurgh occiderunt, cseteri enim accolae ejusdem 
insulse ante sunt occisi aut exules aufugerant." — Asserius, 
'• De Gestis Alfredi Regis." 

Now, Gwith-gara-hiirgh means the hurg or town of 
the With-ware ;^^ these being, undoubtedly, no Germans 
at all, but the native Britons of the Isle of Wight 
(Yectis), whose designation in Latin would be Vecti- 
colcB or Vectienses. 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 9 

This being tlie case, how can they be descended from 
German or Danish Jutes 7 and how can we reconcile the 
statement of Beda with that of Asser ? 

§ 11. The answer to this will be given after another 
fact has been considered. 

Precisely the same confusion between the sounds of 
w^ j, gj io, ecB, u, and i, which occurs with the so-called 
Jutes of the Isle of "Wight, occurs with the Jutlanders' 
of the peninsula of Jutland. The common forms are 
Jutland, Jute, Jutones, and Jutenses, but they are not 
the only ones. In a. d. 952, we find " Dania cismarina 
quam Vitland incolge appellant." — " Annales Saxonici." ' ^ 

§ 12. Putting these facts together I adopt the evi- 
dence of Asser as to the Gwithware being British, and 
consider them as simple Vecti-colce, or inhabitants of the 
Isle of Wight. They are also the Vectuarii of Beda, 
the Wihtware of the Saxon Chronicle, and the Wiht- 
scetan of Alfred. 

The Jutes of Hampshire — i. e., the " Jutarum natio — 
posita contra ipsam insulam Vectam," and the Jutna- 
cyn, I consider to have been the same ; except that they 
had left the Isle of Wight to settle on the opposite coast ; 
probably flying before their German conquerors, in which 
case they would be the exules of Asser. 

The statement of Beda, so opposed to that of Asser, 
I explain by supposing that it arose out of an inaccurate 
inference drawn from the similarity of the names of 
the Isle of Wight and the peninsula of Jutland, since 
we have seen that in both cases, there was a similar con- 
fusion between the syllables Jut- and Vit-. This is an 
error into which even a careful writer might fall. That 
Beda had no authentic historical accounts of the conquest 
of Britain, we know from his own statements in the 
Preface to his Ecclesiastical History,'* and that he par 



10 GERMA^'IO OEIGIX OF 

daily ti-ied to make up for tlie want of them by infe- 
rence is exceedingly likely. If so, what would be more 
natural than for him to conclude that Jutes as well as An- 
gles helped to subdue the country. The fact itself was 
probable ; besides which he saw at one and the same time, 
in England VitcB (called also JutcB), in immediate contact 
with Saxons* and on the continent Jutce (called also Vitce) 
m the neighborhood of Anglest and Saxons. Is it sur- 
prising that he should connect them ? 

§ 13. If the inhabitants of the Isle of Wight were 
really Jutes from Jutland^ it is strange that there should 
be no traces of the difference which existed, then as now, 
between them and the proper Anglo-Saxons — a differ- 
ence which was neither inconsiderable nor of a fleeting 
nature. 

The present Jutlanders are not Germans but Danes, 
and the Jutes of the time of Beda were most probably 
the same. Those of the 11th century were certainly 
so, " Primi ad ostium Baltici Sinus in australi ripa versus 
nos Dani, qiios Juthas appellant^ usque ad Sliam lacum 
habitant." Adamus Bremensis,'^ '• De Situ Daniae" c. 
221. Also, '• Et prima pars Danige, quas Jutland dicitur, 

ad Egdoramt in Boream longitudine pretenditur in 

eum angulum qui Windila dicitur, ubi Jutland finem 
habet," c. 208. 

At the time of Beda they must, according to the re- 
ceived traditions, have been nearly 300 years in pos- 
session of the Isle of Wight, a locality as favourable 
for the preservation of their peculiar manners and cus- 
toms as any in Great Britain, and a locahty wherein we 
have no evidence of their ever having been disturbed. 
Nevertheless, neither trace nor shadow of a trace, either 

* la Hampshire. f In Northern Germany. 

X The Ejder. 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 11 

in early or modern times, lias ever been discovered of their 
separate nationality and language ; a fact wliicli stands 
in remarkable contrast with the very numerous traces 
which the Danes of the 9th and 10th century left behind 
them as evidence of their occupancy. 

§ 14. The words England and English are derived 
from the Angles of Beda, The words Sussex^ Essex, 
Middlesex and Wessex, from his Saxons. No objection 
lies against this ; indeed to deny that populations called 
Angle and Saxon occupied England and spoke the 
Anglo-Saxon language would display an unnecessary and 
unhealthy scepticism. The real question concerning these 
two words consists in the relation which the popula- 
tions to which they were applied bore to each other. 
And this question is a difficult one. Did the Angles 
speak one language, whilst the Saxons spoke another 1 
or did they both speak dialects of the same tongue? 
Were these dialects slightly or widely different? Can 
T^e find traces of the difference in any of the present 
provincial dialects'? Are the idioms of one country of 
Angle, whilst those of another are of Saxon origin? 
Was the Angle more like the Danish language, whilst 
the Saxon approached the Dutch ? None of these ques- 
tions can be answered at present. They have, however, 
been asked for the sake of exhibiting the nature of the 
subject. 

§ 15. The extract from Beda requires further re* 
marks. 

The Angles of Beda. — The statement of Beda re- 
specting the Angles, like his statement concerning the 
Jutes, reappears in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, and in 
Alfred. 

Ethelweard *^ also adopts it : — " Anglia vetus sita est 
inter Saxones et Giotos, habens oppidum capitalo quod 



12 GEKMANIC ORIGIN OF 

sermone Saxonico Sleswic nuncupatur, secundum verd 
Danos Hathahy^ 

Nevertlieless, it is exceptionable and unsatisfactory ; 
and like the previous one, in all probability, an incorrect 
inference founded upon the misinterpretation of a name. 

In tbe eighth century there was, and at the present 
moment there is, a portion of the duchy of Sleswick 
called Anglen or the corner. It is really what its name 
denotes, a triangle of irregular shape, formed by the 
Slie, the firth of Flensborg, and a line drawn from Flens- 
borg to Sleswick. It is just as Danish as the rest of 
the peninsula, and cannot be shown to have been occupied 
by a Germanic population at all. Its area is less than 
that of the county of Rutland, and by no means likely 
to have supplied such a population as that of the Angles 
of England. The fact of its being a desert at the time of 
Beda is credible ; since it formed a sort of March or 
Debatable Ground between the Saxons and Slavonians 
of Holstein, and the Danes of Jutland. 

Now if we suppose that the real Angles of Germany 
were either so reduced in numbers as to have become an 
obscure tribe, or so incorporated with other populations 
as to have lost their independent existence, we can easily 
see how the similarity of name, combined with the geo* 
graphical contiguity of Anglen to the Saxon frontier, 
might mislead even so good a writer as Beda, into the 
notion that he had found the country of the Angles in the 
Angnliis (Anglen) of Sleswick. 

The true Angles were the descendants of the Angli 
of Tacitus. Who these were will be investigated in §§47 
—54. 

§ 16. The Saxo7is of Beda. — The Saxons of Beda 
reached from the country of the Old Saxons* on the 

* See §§ 21—29. 



THE ENGLISH LAI^-QUAGE. 13 

Lippe, in AVestphalia, to that ofythe Nordalbingian* 
Saxons between the Elbe and Eyder; and nearly, 
but not quite, coincided with the present countries of 
Hanover, Oldenburg, Westphalia, and part of Holstein. 
This we may call the Saxon^ or (as reasons will be given 
for considering that it nearly coincided with the country 
of the Angles) the Anglo-Saxo7i area. 

§ 17. River-system and sea-hoard of the Anglo-Saxon 
area. — As the invasion of England took place by sea, 
w^e must expect to find in the invaders a maritime popula- 
tion. This leads to the consideration of the physical 
character of that part of Germany which they occupied. 
And here comes a remarkable and unexpected fact. 
The line of coast between the Rhine and Elbe, the line 
which in reasoning a priori^ we should fix upon as the 
most likely tract for the bold seamen who wrested so 
large an island as Great Britain from its original oc- 
cupants (changing it from Britain to Engla7id), to 
have proceeded from, is 7iot the country of the Anglo- 
Saxons. On the contrary, it is the country of a similar 
but different section of the Germanic population, a section 
which has not received the attention from the English 
historian which it deserves. The country in question is 
the area of — 

§ 18. The Frisians. — At the present moment the 
language of the Dutch province of Eriesland is materially 
difi*erent from that of the other parts of the kingdom 
of Holland. In other words it is not Dutch. Neither 
is it German — although, of course, it resembles 
both languages. On the other hand, it is more like 
the English than any other language or dialect in Ger- 
many is. 

It is a language of considerable antiquity, and al- 
* Saxons North of the Elbe (AI¥s). 



14 GERMANIC OEIGrN" OF 

though, at present it is spoken by the country-people 
only, it possesses a considerable literature. There is 
the Middle Frisian of Gysbert Japicx/'' and the Old 
Frisian of the Frisian Laws.'^ The older the specimen 
of the Frisian language the more closely does it show its 
affinity to the English ; hence the earliest Frisian and 
the Anglo-Saxon are exceedingly alike. Nevertheless 
they differ. 

§ 19. The Frisian was once spoken over a far greater 
area than at present. It was the origiaal language of 
almost all Holland. It was the language of East Fries- 
land to a late period. It was, probably, the language 
i>f the ancient Chauci. At the present time (besides 
Friesland) it survives in Heligoland, in the islands be- 
tween the Ems and Weser, in part of Sleswick, and in a 
few localities in Oldenburg and Westphalia. 

Hence it is probable that the original Frisian, ex- 
tending to an imcertain and irregular distance inland, 
lay between the Saxons and the sea, and stretched from 
the Zuyder Zee to the Elbe ; a fact which would leave 
to the latter nation the lower Elbe and the Weser as 
their water-system: the extent to which they were in 
direct contact with the ocean being less than we are pre- 
pared to expect from their subsequent history. 

On the other hand the a priori probabilities of there 
being Frisians as well as Anglo-Saxons amongst the con- 
querors of Great Britain are considerable. — See §§ 55, 
56. 

§ 20. The Anglo-Saxon area coincided — 

1. Politically. — With the kingdom of Hanover, the 
duchy of Oldenburg, and parts of Westphalia and 
Holstein. 

2. Physically. — With the basin of the Weser. 

It was certainly from the Anglo-Saxon, and prohahly 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 15 

from a part of the rrisian area that Great Britain was 
first invaded. 

This is as much as it is safe to say at present. The 
preceding chapter investigated the date of the Germanic 
migration into Britain; the present has determined the 
area from which it went forth. 



16 THE DIALECTS OF 



CHAPTER III. 



OF THE DIALECTS OF THE SAXON AREA, AND OF THE SO' 



CALLED OLD SAXON. 



§ 21. The area occupied by the Saxons of Germany 
has been investigated ; and it now remains to ask, how 
far the language of the occupants was absolutely iden- 
tical throughout, or how far it fell into dialects or sub- 
dialects. 

There were at least two divisions of the Saxon ; (1st) 
the Saxon of which the extant specimens are of English 
origin, and (2nd), the Saxon of which the extant spe- 
cimens are of Continental origin. We will call these 
at present the Saxon of England, and the Saxon of the 
Continent. 

§ 22. Respecting the Saxon of England and the Saxon 
of the Continent, there is good reason for believing that 
the first was spoken in the northern^ the second in the 
southern portion of the Saxon area, i. e., the one in Hano- 
ver and the other in Westphalia, the probable boundaries 
between them being the line of highlands between Os- 
naburg and Paderborn. 

§ 23. Respecting the Saxon of England and the Saxon 
of the Continent, there is good reason for believing that, 
whilst the former was the mother-tongue of the Angles 
and the conquerors of England, the latter was that of the 
Cherusci of Arminius, the conquerors and the annihila- 
tors of the legions of Varus. ^^ 

S 24. Respecting the Saxon of England and the 



THE SAXON AREA. 17 

Saxon of the Continentj it is a fact that, whilst we have 
a full literature in the former, we have but fragmentary 
specimens of the latter — these being chiefly the follow- 
ing: (1) the HeliancV (2) Hildubrand and Hathu- 
brant, '^^ (3) the Carolinian Psalms. '^^ 

§ 25. The preceding points have been predicated 
respecting the difference between the two ascertained 
Saxon dialects, for the sake of preparing the reader for 
the names by which they are known. 

THE SAXON OF THE CONTINENT THE SAXON OF ENGLAND 

MAY BE CALLED MAY BE CALLED 

1. Continental Saxon. • Insular Saxon. 

2. German Saxon. English Saxon. 

3. Westplialian Saxon. Hanoverian Saxon. 

4. South Saxon. Korth Saxon. 

5. Cheruscan Saxon. Angle Saxon. 

6. Saxon of the Heliand. Saxon of Beowulf. 23 

§ 26. The Saxon of England is called Anglo-Saxon ; 
a term against which no exception can be raised. 

§ 27. The Saxon of the Continent used to be called 
i)a?io-Saxon, and is called Old Saxon. 

§ 28. Wh]/ called Dsmo-JSaxon. — ^When the poem 
called Heliand was first discovered in an English library, 
the difference in language between it and the common 
Anglo-Saxon composition was accounted for by the 
assumption of a Danish intermixture. 

§ 29. Wh]/ called Old Saxon. — When the Continental 
origin of the Heliand was recognised, the language was 
called Old Saxon, because it represented the Saxon of 
the mother-country, the natives of which were called Old 
Saxons by the J.n^Zo-Saxons themselves. Still the term 
is exceptionable; as the Saxon of the Heliand is pro- 
bably a 5^5^er-dialect of the Jlw^Zo-Saxon, rather the 
Anglo-^d^xon itself in a Continental locality. Exception- 
able, however, as it is, it will be employed. 



18 " affi:n'ities of English 



CHAPTER IV. 

AFFINITIES OF THE ENGLISH WITH THE LANGUAGES OF 
GERMANY AND SCANDINAVIA, 

§ 30. Over and above those languages of Germany 
and Holland wluch were 'akin to the dialects of the 
Anglo-Saxons, cognate languages Tvere spoken in Den- 
mark, Sweden, Norway, Iceland, and the Feroe isles, 
i.e., in Scandinavia. 

§ 31. The general collective designation for the Ger- 
manic tongues of Germany and Holland, and for the 
Scandinavian languages of Denmark, Sweden, Norway, 
Iceland, and the Feroe Isles, is taken from the name of 
those German tribes who, during the decline of the 
Roman Empire, were best known to the Romans as 
the Goths; the term Gothic for the Scandinavian and 
Germanic languages, collectively, being both current 
and convenient. 

§ 32. Of this great stock of languages the Scandi- 
navian is one branch; the Germanic, called also Teu- 
tonic, another. 

§ 33. The Scandinavian branch of the Gothic stock 
comprehends, 1. The dialects of Scandinavia Proper, i. e., 
of Norway and Sweden ; 2. of the Danish isles and 
Jutland ; 3. of Iceland ; 4. of the Eeroe Isles. 

§ 34. The Teutonic branch falls into three diyisions : — 

1. The Moeso-Gothic. 

2. The High Germanic. 



WITH GERMAN" AND SCANDINAVIAN. 19 

3. The Low Germanic. 

§ 35. It is in the Moeso-Gothic that the most ancient 
specimen of any Gothic tongue has been preserved. It 
is also the Mceso-Gothic that was spoken by the con- 
querors of ancient Rome ; by the subjects of Hermanric, 
Alaric, Theodoric, Euric, Athanaric, and Totila. 

In the reign of Valens, when pressed by intestine wars, 
and by the movements of the Huns, the Goths were 
assisted by that emperor, and settled in the Roman pro- 
vince of Moesia. 

Furthermore, they were converted to Christianity; 
and the Bible was translated into their language by their 
Bishop Ulphilas. 

Fragments of this translation, chiefly from the Gospels, 
have come down to the present time ; and the Bible 
translation of the Arian Bishop Ulphilas, in the language 
of the Goths of Moesia, during the reign of Valens, ex- 
hibits the earliest sample of any Gothic tongue. 

§ 36. The Old High German, called also Francic^* 
and Alemannic,*^^ was spoken in the ninth, tenth, and 
eleventh centuries, in Suabia, Bavaria, and Franconia. 

The Middle High German ranges from the thirteenth 
century to the Reformation. 

§ 37. The low Germanic division, to which the An- 
glo-Saxon belongs, is currently said to comprise six lan- 
guages, or rather four languages in different stages. 

I. II. — The Anglo-Saxon and Modern English. 

III. The Old Saxon. 

IV. y.— The Old Frisian and Modern Dutch. 
YI. — The Platt-Deutsch, or Low German. 

§ 38. The Frisian and Dutch. — It is a current state- 
ment that the Old Frisian bears the same relation to the 
Modern Dutch of Holland that the Anglo-Saxon does to 
the English. 



20 AFFINITIES OF ENGLISH 

The truer view of tlie question is as follows : — 

1. That a single language, spoken in two dialects, was 
originally common to both Holland and Priesland. 

2. That from the northern of these dialects we have 
the Modern Frisian of Friesland. 

3. From the southern, the Modern Dutch of Holland. 
The reason of this refinement is as follows : — 

The Modern Dutch has certain grammatical forms 
older than those of the old Frisian ; e. g., the Dutch in- 
finitives and the Dutch weak substantives, in their oblique 
cases, end in -en ; those of the Old Frisian in -a : the 
form in -eji being the older. 

The true Frisian is spoken in few and isolated locali- 
ties. There is — 

1. The Frisian of the Dutch state called Friesland. 

2. The Frisian of the parish of Saterland, in West- 
phalia. 

3. The Frisian of Heligoland. 

4. The North Frisian, spoken in a few villages of 
Sleswick. One of the characters of the North Frisian is 
the possession of a dual number. 

In respect to its stages, we have the Old Frisian of 
tha Asega-bog, the Middle Frisian of Gysbert Japicx,* 
and the Modern Frisian of the present Frieslanders, 
Westphalians, and Heligolanders. 

39. The Low German and Piatt- Deutsch. — The 
words Low- German are not only lax in their application, 
but they are equivocal ; since the term has two meanings, 
a general meaning when it signifies a division of the Ger- 
manic languages, comprising English, Dutch, Anglo- 
Saxon, Old Saxon, and Frisian, and a limited one when 
it means the particular dialects of the Ems, the Weser, 
and the Elbe. To avoid this the dialects in question 

* See Notes 17 and 18. 



WITH GERMAN AND SCANDINAVIAN. 21 

are conveniently called by their continental name of 
Piatt- Deutsche just as in England we say Broad Scotcli. 
§ 40. The most characteristic difference between the 
Saxon and Icelandic (indeed between the Teutonic and 
Scandinavian tongues) lies in the peculiar position of the 
definite article in the latter. In Saxon, the article cor- 
responding with the modern word the, is fce^, se, se6, for 
the neuter, masculine, and feminine genders respectively ; 
and these words, regularly declined, are prefixed to the 
words with which they agree, just as is the case with the 
English and with the majority of languages. In Ice- 
landic, however, the article instead of preceding, follows 
its noun, with which it coalesces, having previously suffered 
a change in form. The Icelandic article corresponding 
to \oe.t, se, se6, is hitt, hinn, hin : from this the h is ejected, 
so that, instead of the regular inflection (a), we have the 
forms {h). 

a. 
Kent. Maac. Fern, 



Sing. Nom. 


Hitt 


Hinn 


Hin. 


Ace. 


Hitt 


Hinn 


Hina, 


Dat. 


Hinu 


Hinum 


Hinni. 


Gen. 


Hias 


Hins 


Hinnar. 


Plur. Norn. 


Hia 


Hinir 


Hinar. 


Ace. 


Hin 


Hina 


Hinar. 


Dat. 


Hinum 


Hinum 


Hinum. 


Gen. 


Hinna 


Hinna 


Hinna. 


Sing. Norn. 


-it 


0. 

-inn 


-in 


Ace. 


-it 


-inn 


-ina (-na). 


Dat. 


-nu 


-num 


-inni (-nni). 


Gen. 


-ins 


-ins 


-innar (-nnar). 


riur. Nom. 


-in 


-nir 


-nar. 


Ace. 


-in 


-na 


-nar. 


Dat. 


-num 


num 


-niun. 


Gen. 


-nna 


nna 


-nna. 



22 



AFFINITIES OF ENGLISH 



Whence, as an affix, in composition, 

Neut. Masc. Fem. 

Sing. Nom, Augat Boginn Tiingan 

Ace. Augat Boginn Tungum 

Dat. Auganu Boganum Tungunr^i. 

Gen. Augans Bogans Tungunnor 

Plur.Nom. Augun Bogai-nir Tungurnar. 

Ace. Augun Bogana Tungurnar. 

Dat. Augunum Bogunum Tungunum. 

Gen. Auffnanna Boo;anna Tuno-nanna. 



In the Swedish, Norwegian, and Danish this pecu- 
liarity in the position of the definite article is preserved. 
Its origin, however, is concealed ; and an accidental 
identity with the indefinite article has led to false notions 
respecting its nature. In the languages in point the i is 
changed into e, so that what in Icelandic is it and in., is in 
Danish et and en. En, however, as a separate word, is 
the numeral one, and also the indefinite article a ; whilst 
in the neuter gender it is et — en sol, a sun ; et bord. 
a table : solon, the sun ; bordet, the table. From modern 
forms like those just quoted, it has been imagined that 
the definite is merely the indefinite article transposed. 
This it is not. 

To apply an expression of Mr. Gobbet's, e?i = a, and 
~en = the, are the same combination of letters, but not the 
same word. 

§ 41. Another characteristic of the Scandinavian 
language is the possession of a passive form, or a passive 
voice, ending in -st : — ek, ]>u, hann brennist = / am, 



thou art, he is 



burnt ; ver brennuinst = we are burnt ; 



\er brennizt = ye are burtit ; ]>eir brennast = they are 
burnt. Past tense, ek, ]>u, hann brendist ; ver bren- 
du7?ist, }>er brenduzt, ^eir brendust. Imperat. : brenstu 
■== be thou burnt. Infinit. : brennast = to be burnt. 



WITH GEKMAN AND SCANDINAVIAN. 23 

In tlie modern Danish and Swedish, the passive is 
still preserved, but without the final t. In the older 
stages of Icelandic, on the other hand, the termination 
was not -st but -sc ; which -sc grew out of the reflective 
pronoun sik. With these phenomena the Scandinavian 
languages give us the evolution and development of a 
passive voice ; wherein we have the following series of 
changes : — 1. the reflective pronoun coalesces with the 
verb, whilst the sense changes from that of a reflective 
to that of a middle verb ; 2. the c changes to t, whilst 
the middle sense passes into a passive one ; 3. ^ is 
dropped from the end of the word, and the expression that 
was once reflective then becomes strictly passive. 

Now the Saxons have no passive voice at all. That 
they should have one originating like that of the Scandi- 
navians was impossible, inasmuch as they had no reflective 
pronoun, and, consequently, nothing to evolve it from. 



24 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



CHAPTER V. 

ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. GERMANIC ELEMENTS. 

THE ANGLES. 

§ 42. The language of England has been formed out 
of three elements. 

a. Elements referable to the original British popula- 
tion, and derived from times anterior to the Anglo-Saxon 
invasion. 

h, Anglo-Saxon, Germanic, or imported elements. 

c. Elements introduced since the Anglo-Saxon con- 
quest. 

§ 43. Each of these requires a special analysis, but 
that of the second will be taken first, and form the con- 
tents of the present chapter. 

All that we have at present learned concerning the Ger- 
manic invaders of England, is the geographical area which 
they originally occupied. How far, however, it was sim- 
ple Saxons who conquered England single-handed, or how 
far the particular Saxon Germans were portions of a 
complex population, requires further investigation. Were 
the Saxons one division of the German population, 
whilst the Angles were another? or were the Angles a 
section of the Saxons, so that the latter was a generic 
term including the former ? Again, although the Saxon 
invasion may be the one which has had the greatest 
Influence, and drawn the most attention, why may there 
not have been separate and independent migrations, the 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 25 

effects and record of which have, in the lapse of time, 
become fused with those of the more important divisions ? 

§ 44. The Angles ; who were they 7 and what was 
their relation to the Saxons 7 — The first answer to this 
question embodies a great fact in the way of internal evi- 
dence, viz.^ that they were the people from whom Eng- 
land derives the name it bears = Angle land, i. e., land of 
the Angles. Our language too is English, i. e., Angle. 
Whatever, then, they may have been on the Continent, 
they were a leading section of the invaders here. Why 
then has their position in our inqu' ries been hitherto so 
subordinate to that of the Saxons ? It is because their 
importance and preponderance arc not so manifest in Ger- 
many as we infer them to have been in Britain. Nay 
more, their historical place amongst the nations of Ger- 
many, is both insignificant and uncertain ; indeed, it will 
be seen from the sequel, that in and of themselves we 
know next to nothing about them, knowing them only in 
their relations, i. e., to ourselves and to the Saxons. 

§ 45. Although they are the section of the immigra- 
tion which gave the name to England, and, as such, the 
preponderating element in the eyes of the present English, 
they were not so in the eyes of the original British ; who 
neither knew at the time of the Conquest, nor know now, 
of any other name for their German enemies but Sax'on. 
And Saxon is the name by which the present English 
are known to the Welsh, Armorican, and Gaelic Celts. 

Welsh Saxon. 

Armorican Soson. 

Gaelic Sassenach. 

§ 46. Although they are the section of the immigra- 
tion which gave the name to England, (fee, they were 
quite as little Angles as Saxons in the eyes of foreign 

o 

O 



26 GEKMANIC ELEMENTS. 

cotemporary writers ; since the expression Saxonicb trans- 
marincB^ occurs as applied to England. 

§ 47. Who were the Angles 7 — Altliougli they are the 
section of the immigration which gave the name to Eng- 
land, &C.J the notices of them as Germans in Germany, 
are extremely limited. 

Extract from Tacitus. — This merely connects them 
with certain other tribes, and affirms the existence of 
certain religious ordinances common to them : — 

" Contra Langobardos paucitas nobilitat : plurimis ac 
valentissimis nationibus cincti, non per obsequium sed 
proeliis et periclitando tuti sunt. Reudigni deinde, et 
Aviones, et Angli, et Yarini, et Eudoses, et Suardones, 
et Nuithones, fluminibus aut silvis muniuntur : nee quid- 
quam notabile in singulis, nisi quod in commune Herthum, 
id est, Terram matrem colunt, eamque intervenire rebus 
hominum, invehi populis, arbitrantur. Est in insula 
Oceani Castum nemus, dicatumque in eo vehiculum, veste 
contectum, attingere uni sacerdoti concessum. Is adesse 
penetrali deam intelligit, vectamque bobus feminis multa 
cum veneratione prosequitur. Lseti tunc dies, festa loca, 
qusecumque adventu hospitioque dignatur. Non bella 
ineunt, non arma sumunt, clausum omne ferrum ; pax et 
quies tunc tantum nota, tunc tantum amata, donee idem 
sacerdos satiatam conversatione mortalium deam temple 
reddat; mox vehiculum et vestes, et, si credere velis, 
numen ipsum secreto lacu abluitur. Servi ministrant, 
quos statim idem lacus haurit. Arcanus hinc terror, 
sanctaque ignorantia, quid sit id, quod tantum perituri 
vident."* 

Extract from Ptolemy. — This connects the Angles 
with the fSiievi, and Langobardi, and places them on the 
Middle Elbe.— 'JEi/ro? Kal fieaoyeLcov ^vcov fieyiaTa fiiv 
* De Mor. Germ. 40. 



OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 27 

icTTi TO re rcov Xovrj^wv rwv ^AyyetXcov, oi elaiv dvarokL' 
KcorepoL T(ou Aajyo/SdpScov^ dvareLVovre^ 7rpo<s Td<i dp/CTOV<i 
fJ'e^pi' rcxiv /jiiacov rod "A\^co<; irorafxov. 

Extract from Procopius. — For this see § 55. 

Heading of a law referred to the age of Charle- 
magne. — This connects them with the Werini (Varni) and 
the Thuringians — "Incipit lex Angliorum et Werino- 
rum hoc est ThuringorufnJ^ 

§ 48. These notices agree in giving the Angles a Ger- 
man locality, and in connecting them ethnologically, and 
philologically with the Germans of Germany. And 
such was, undoubtedly, the case. Nevertheless, it may 
be seen from § 15 that a Danish origin has been assign- 
ed to them. 

The exact Germanic affinities of the Angles are, how 
ever, difficult to ascertain, since the tribes with which they 
are classed are differently classed. This we shall see by 
asking the following questions : — 

§ 49. What were the Langobardi, with whom the 
Angles were connected by Tacitus ? The most important 
fact to be known concerning them is, that the general 
opinion is in favour of their having belonged to either the 
High-Germsin, or Moeso- Gothic division, rather than to 
the Loiv. 

§ 50. What were the iSuevi, with whom the Angles 
were connected by Tacitus? The most important fact 
to be known concerning them is, that the general opinion 
is in favour of their having belonged to either the High- 
German or Moeso-Gothic division rather than to the 
Loii^. 

§ 51. What were the Werini, with whom the Angles 
were connected in the Leges Anglorwm et Werinorum 7 
Without having any particular data for connecting the 
Werini (Varni, Ovdpvoc) with either the High-German, or 



28 germajN-ic elements 

the Moeso-Gothic divisions, there are certain facts in favoui* 
of their being Slavonic. 

§ 52. What were the Thuringians, with whom the 
Angles are connected in the Leges Anglorum 7 Ger- 
manic in locality, and most probably allied to the Goths 
of Moesia in language. If not, High-Germans. 

§ 53. Of the Reudigni, Eudoses, Nnithones, Suar- 
dones, and Aviones, too little is known in detail to make 
the details an inquiry of importance. 

§ 54. The reader has now got a general view of the 
extent to which the position of the Angles, as a German 
tribe, is complicated by conflicting statements ; statements 
which connect them with (probably) High-Qerm^Mi Thu- 
ringians, Suevi, and Langobardi, and with (probably) Sla- 
vonic Werini, or Yarni ; whereas in England, they are 
scarcely distinguishable from the Xoizj-German Sax- 
ons. In the present state of our knowledge, the only 
safe fact seems to be, that of the common relation of 
both Angles and Saxons to the present English of Eng- 
land. 

This brings the two sections within a very close de- 
gree of aflSnity, and makes it probable, that, just as at 
present, descendants of the Saxons are English [Angle) 
in Britain, so, in the third and fourth centuries, ancestors 
of the Angles were Saxons in Germany. Why, however, 
the one name preponderated on the Continent, and the 
other in England is difficult to ascertain. 

§ 55. The Frisians have been mentioned as a German- 
ic population likely to have joined in the invasion of Brit- 
ain ; the presumption in favor of their having done so 
arising from their geographical position. 

There is, however, something more than mere pre- 
sumption upon this point. 

Archbishop Usher, amongst the earlier historians, and 



OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 29 

Mr. Kemble amongst those of the present day, as well 
as other intermediate investigators, have drawn attention 
to certain important notices of them. 

The main facts bearing upon this question are the 
following : — 

1. Hengist, according to some traditions, was a Frisian 
hero. 

2. Procopius'^ wrote as follows : — Bpcrrlav Be rrjp 
VYjaov e^vTj rpla iroXvav^pwiroTara €')(ovai^ /3aat\6V<; re 
eh avTCOV eKdcrrw icpea-rrjfcev, ovo/iara Be Kelrac Tol<i e^vecrc 
T0VT0c<i ^AyyiXoc re koX ^plaaoves koI ol rfj vrjaw o/jlcovv- 
fjLoc BplTTcove<i. TocravTT] Be rj rcovBe rcov e^va>v iroXvav- 
^pooirla ^alverat ovcra ware ava ttclv eVo? Kara ttoWov^ 
iv^evBe pLeraviardiJbevoi ^vv yvvai^l koX iraialv e? ^pdy- 
yovs Xf^povacv. — Procop. B. Gr. iv. 20. 

3. In the Saxon Chronicle we find the following pas- 
sage : — " That same y-ear, the armies from among the East- 
Anglians, and from among the North-Humbrians, ha- 
rassed the land of the West-Saxons chiefly, most of all 
by their 'sescs,' which they had built many years be- 
fore. Then king Alfred commanded long ships to be 
built to oppose the sescs ; they were full-nigh twice as 
long as the others ; some had sixty oars, and some had 
more ; they were both swifter and steadier, and also 
higher than the others. They were shapen neither like 
the Frisian nor the Danish, but so as it seemed to him 
that they would be most efficient. Then some time in 
the same year, there came six ships to Wight, and there 
did much harm, as well as in Devon, and elsewhere along 
the sea coast. Then the king commanded nine of the new 
ships to go thither, and they obstructed their passage from 
the port towards the outer sea. Then went they with 
three of their ships out against them ; and three lay in 
the upper part of the port in the dry ; the men were gone 



80 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

from them ashore. Then took they two of the three ships 
at the outer part of the port, and killed the men, and the 
other ship escaped; in that also the men were killed 
except five ; they got away because the other ships were 
aground. They also were aground very disadvantage- 
ously, three lay aground on that side of the deep on which 
the Danish ships were aground, and all the rest upon 
the other side, so that no one of them could get to the 
others. But when the water had ebbed many furlongs 
from the ships, then the Danish men went from their 
three ships to the other three which were left by the tide 
on their side, and then they there fought against them. 
There was slain Lucumon the king's reeve, and Wulf- 
heard the Frisian^ and ^bbe the Frisian^ and ^thel- 
here the Frisian^ and JEthelferth the king's 'geneat,' 
and of all the men, Frisians and English, seventy-two ; 
and of the Danish men one hundred and twenty." 

§ 56. I believe then, that, so far from the current ac- 
counts being absolutely correct, in respect to the Ger- 
manic elements of the English population, the Jutes^ as 
mentioned by Beda, formed no part of it, whilst the Fris- 
ians, not so mentioned, were a real constituent therein / 
besides which, there may, very easily, have been other 
Germanic tribes, though in smaller ptDportions. 



STRUCTUEE OF CELTIC TONGUES. 81 



CHAPTER VI. 

THE CELTIC STOCK OF LANGUAGES, AND THEIR RELATIONS 
TO THE ENGLISH. 

§ 57. The languages of Grreat Britain at the invasion 
of Julius Caesar were of the Celtic stock. 

Of the Celtic stock there are two branches. 

1. The British or Cambrian branch, represented by 
the present Welsh, and containing, besides, the Cornish 
of Cornwall (lately extinct), and the Armorican of the 
French province of Brittany. It is almost certain that 
the old British, the ancient language of Gaul, and the 
Pictish were of this branch. 

2, The Gaelic or Erse branch, represented by the 
present Irish Gaelic, and containing, besides, the Gaelic 
of the Highlands of Scotland and the Manks of the Isle 
of Man. 

§ 58. Taken altogether the Celtic tongues form a 
very remarkable class. As compared with those of the 
Gothic stock they are marked by the following charac- 
teristics : — 

The scantiness of the declension of Celtic nouns. — lu 
Irish there is a peculiar form for the dative plural, as 
cos ■-=foot, cos-aihh = to feet (ped-^6^/5) ; and beyond this 
there is nothing else whatever in the way of case^ as 
found in the German, Latin, Greek, and other tongues. 
Even the isolated form in question is not found in the 



32 STRUCTUEE OF CELTIC TOKGUES. 

Welsli and Breton. Hence tlie Celtic tongues are pre- 
eminently uninflected in tlie way of declension. 

§ 59. The agglutinate character of their verbal in- 
flections. — In Welsli the pronouns for we, ye, and they, 
are ni, chwyi, and hwynt respectively. In Welsh also 
the root = love is car. As conjugated in the plural num- 
ber this is — 

CdiX-wn = am-amw5. 
C2i>ic-ych = am-a^i^. 
CduT-ant = suR-ant. 

Now the -wn, -ych, and -ant, of the persons of the verbs 
are the personal pronouns, so that the inflection is really 
a verb and a pronoun in a state of agglutination ; i. e., 
in a state where the original separate existence of the 
two sorts of words is still manifest. This is probably 
the case with languages in general. The Celtic, how- 
ever, has the peculiarity of exhibiting it in an unmis- 
takable manner ; showing, as it were, an inflection in the 
process of formation, and (as such) exhibiting an early 
stage of language. 

§ 60. The system of initial mutations. — The Celtic, 
as has been seen, is deficient in the ordinary means of 
expressing case. How does it make up for this ? Even 
thus. The noun changes its initial letter according to 
its relation to the other words of the sentence. Of 
course this is subject to rule. As, however, I am only 
writing for the sake of illustrating in a general way the 
peculiarities of the Celtic tongues, the following table, 
from Prichard's " Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nations," 
is sufficient. 

Car, a Jcinsman. 3. form, Ei chdr, her kiiisman. 

1. form, Car agos, a near kins- 4. Yj nghar, m^ kiiiB* 

man. man. 

2. Ei g^r, his kinsman. 



STEUCTUEE OF CELTIC TONGUES. 



33 



T^d, a father. 

1. fonriy T^d y plentyn, the 

child's father. 

2. Eidad, Ais/a^/ten 
8. Ei thdd, her father. 
4. Vy nhdd, my father. 

Pen, a head. 

1. /orwi, Pen gwr, ;fAe Acac? q/" 

a man. 

2. Ei ben, 7ies head. 

3. Ei phen, Aer head. 

4. Vy mhen, ot^/ head. 
Gwas, a servant. 

1. form, Grwds fydhlon, a /az7A- 

ful servant. 

2. Ei "Was, his servant. 

3. Vy ngwas, my ser- 

vant. 
Duw, a god. 

1. /orm, Duw trugarog, a mer- 

ciful god. 

2. Ei dhuw, his god. 
8. Vy nuw, wiy ^oc?. 



Bara, bread. 

1. /orm, Bara cann, ^Dh^te 

bread. 

2. Ei vara, his bread. 

3. Vy mara, my bread. 
Lha-w, a hand. 

1. form, Lhaw wenn, a white 

hand. 

2. Ei law, his hand. 
Mam, a mcther. 

1. /orm, Mam dirion, a tender 

mother. 

2. Eivam, Ais mother. 
Rhwyd, a net. 

1. form, Rhwyd lawn, a fvll 

net. 

2. Ei rwyd, his net. 
From the Erse. 

Stiil, an eye. 

1. form, StiiL 

2. A huil, his eye. 
Slainte, health. 

2. form. Do hlainte, your health. 



§ 61. The Celtic tongues have lately received especial 
illustration from the researches of Mr. Garnett. Amongst 
others, the two following points are particularly investi- 
gated by him : — 

1. The affinities of the aneient language of Gaul. 

2. The affinities of the Pictish language or dialect. 

§ 62. The ancient language of Gaul Cambrian. — 
The evidence in favour of the ancient language of Gaul 
being Cambrian rather than Gaelic, lies in the following 
facts : — 

The old Gallic glosses are more Welsh than Gaelic. 

a. Petorritum = a four-wheeled carriage^ from the 
Welsh, -peder-four, and rhod=a wheel. The Gaelic 



M STEUCTUEE OF CELTIC TONGUES. 

for four is ceathair, and the Gaelic compound would 
have heen different. 

h. P€?npedula, the cinque-foil, from the Welsh pump 
=flve, and daleji = a leaf The Gaelic for Jive is cuig, 
and the Gaelic compound would have been different. 

c. Candetum = a measure of 100 feet, from the "Welsh 
can^ = 100. The Gaelic for a hundred is cead, and the 
Gaelic compound would have been different. 

d. Epona = the goddess of horses. In the old Armori- 
can the root ep=horse. The Gaelic for a horse is each. 

e. The evidence from the names of geographical locali- 
ties in Gaul, both ancient and modern, goes the same 
way : Nantuates, Nantouin, Nanteuil, are derived from 
the Welsh nant = a valley, a word unknown in Gaelic. 

/. The evidence of certain French provincial words, 
which are Welsh and Armorican rather than Erse or 
Gaelic. 

§ 63. The Pictish most probably Cambrian. — The 
evidence in favour of the Pictish being Cambrian rather 
than Gaelic lies in the following facts : 

a. When St. Columbanus preached, whose mother- 
tongue was Irish Gaelic, he used an interpreter. This 
shows the difference between the Pict and Gaelic. What 
follows shows the affinity between the Pict and Welsh. 

b. A manuscript in the Colbertine library contains a 
list of Pictish kings from the fifth century downwards. 
These names are more Welsh than Gaelic. Tar an = 
thunder in Welsh. TJven is the Welsh Owen. The 
first syllable in Talorg {^forehead) is the tal in Tal- 
haiarn = iro7i forehead, Taliessin = sple?idid forehead, 
Welsh names. Wrgust is nearer to the Welsh Gwrgust 
than to the Irish Fergus. Finally, Drust, Drostan, 
Wrad, Necton, closely resemble the Welsh Trio.st, Trwst- 



STRUCTURE OF CELTIC TONGUES. 35 

an, Gwriad, Nwython. Cineod and Domhnall {Kenneth 
and Donnell) are the only true Erse forms in the list. 

c. The only Pictish common name extant is the well- 
known compound pen vol, which is, in the oldest MS. 
of Beda, peann fahel. This means caput valli, and is 
the name for the eastern termination of the Vallum of 
Antoninus. Herein pen is unequivocally Welsh, meaning 
head. It is an impossible form in Gaelic. Fal, on the 
other hand, is apparently Gaelic, the Welsh for a ram- 
part being gwall. Fal, however, occurs in Welsh also, 
and means indosure. 

The evidence just indicated is rendered nearly con- 
clusive by an interpolation, apparently of the twelfth 
century, of the Durham MS. of Nennius, whereby it is 
stated that the spot in question was called in Gaehc 
Cenail. Now Cenail is the modern name Kinneil, and 
it is also a Gaelic translation of the Pict pen val, since 
cean is the Gaelic for head, and fhail for rampart or 
wall. If the older form were Gaehc, the substitution, 
or translation, would have been superfluous. 

d. The name of the Ochil Hills in Perthshire is better 
explained from the Pict uchel = high, than from the Gaelic 
uasal. 

e. Bryneich, the British form of the province Bernicia, 
is better explained by the Welsh brj/n = ridge {hilly 
zountry), than by any word in Gaelic. — Garnett, in 
" Transactions of Philological Society." 



86 LANGUAGES DERIVED 



CHAPTER VII. 

THE ANGLO-NORMAN, AND THE LANGUAGES OF THE CLASSICAL 
STOCK. 

§ 64. The languages of Greece and Home belong to 
one and tlie same stock. 

The Greek and its dialects, both ancient and modern, 
constitute the Greek of the Classical stock. 

The Latin in all its dialects, the old Italian languages 
allied to it, and the modern tongues derived from the 
Roman, constitute the Latin branch of the Classical stock. 

Now, although the Greek dialects are of only second- 
ary importance in the illustration of the history of the 
English language, the Latin elements require a special 
consideration. 

This is because the Norman French, introduced into 
England by the battle of Hastings, is a language derived 
from the Roman, and consequently a language of the 
Latin branch of the Classical stock. 

§ 65. The Latin language overspread the greater part 
of the Roman empire. It supplanted a multiplicity of 
aboriginal languages ; just as the English of North 
America has supplanted the aboriginal tongues of the 
native Indians, and just as the Russian is supplanting 
those of Siberia and Kamskatka. 

Sometimes the war that the Romans carried on against 
the old inhabitants was a war of extermination. In this 
case the original language was superseded at once. ' In 



FROM THE LATIN. 87 

otlier cases their influence was introduced gradually. In 
this case the influence of the original language was 
greater and more permanent. 

Just as in the United States the English came in 
contact with an American, whilst in New Holland it 
comes in contact with an Australian language, so was 
the Latin language of Rome engrafted, sometimes on a 
Celtic, sometimes on a Gothic, and sometimes on some 
other stock. The nature of the original language must 
always be borne in mind. 

From Italy, its original seat, the Latin was extended 
in the following chronological order : — 

1. To the Spanish Peninsula; where it overlaid or 
was engrafted on languages allied to the present Bis- 
cayan. 

2. To Gaul, or France, where it overlaid or was en- 
grafted on languages of the Celtic stock. 

3. To Dacia and Pannonia where it overlaid or was 
engrafted on a language the stock whereof is undeter- 
mined, but which was, probably, Sarmatian. The in- 
troduction of the Latin into Dacia and Pannonia took place 
in the time of Trajan. 

§ QQ. From these difierent introductions of the Latin 
into different countries we have the following modern 
languages — 1st Italian, 2nd Spanish and Portuguese, 3rd 
French, 4th Wallachian ; to which must be added a 5th, 
the Romanese of part of Switzerland. 

Specimen of the Romanese. 

Luke XV. 11. 

11. IJn Hum veva dus Filgs : 

12. Ad ilg juven da quels schet alg Bab, "Bab mi dai la Part de la 
Rauba c' and' a mi : ad el parch^ or ad els la Rauba. 

*18. A bucca bears Gis suenter, cur ilg Filg juven vet tut mesa an- 



88 LANGUAGES DEEIVED 

Bcmel, scha tila 1 navent en liana Terra dalunsch : a lou sfiget el tut sia 
Hauba cun viver senza spargn. 

14. A cur el vet tut sfaig, scha vangit ei en quella Terra iin grond 
Fumaz : ad el antschavet a ver basengs. 

15. Ad el ma, a : sa plide enn iin Burgeis da quella Terra ; a quel ilg 
tarmatet or sin ses Beins a parchirar ils Pores. 

16. Ad el grigiava dad amplanir sieu Venter cun las Criscas ch' ils 
Pores malgiavan ; mo nagin Igi deva. 

17. Mo el ma en sasez a schet: "Quonts Fumelgs da mieu Bab han 
budonza da Pann, a jou miei d' fom ! " 

1 8. " Jou vi lavar si, ad ir tier mieu Bab, e vi gir a Igi : * Bab, jou hai 
faig puccau ancunter ilg Tscliiel ad avont tei ; 

19. " ' A sunt bucca pli vangonts da vangir numnaus tie'i Filg ; fai mei 
esser sco iin da tes Fumelgs.' " 

Specimen of the Wallachian, 

Luke xy. 11. 

11. "Un om evea doi fee ori. 

12. Shi a zis c'el mai tinr din ei tatlui su: tat, dmi partea c'e mi se 
kade de avucie : shi de a imprcit lor avuciea. 

13. Shi nu dup multe zile, adunint toate fee orul c el max tinr, s'a 
dus intr 'o car departe, shi akolo a rsipit toat avuciea ca, viecuind intr 
dezmierdi-i. 

14. Shi keltuind el toate, c'a f kirt foamete mare intr* ac'ea car : shi 
el a inc'eput a se lipsi. 

15. Shi mergina c'a lipit de imul din Ikuitorii crii ac'eia: si '1 a 
trimis pre el la earinide sale c pask porc'ii. 

16. Shi doria c 'shi sature pinctec'ele sii de roshkobele c'e minka 
porc'^ ! shi nimini nu i da lui. 

VJ. lar viind intru sine, a zis; Mci argaci ai tatlui mieii sint indes- 
tulaci de piine, iar eii pieiii de foame. 

18. Skula-m-vioii, shi m' voiu duc'e la tata mieu, shi vioii zicV 
lui: 

19. Tat, greshit-am la e'er shi inaintea ta, shi nu mai sint vrednik a 
m kema fiul tii ; fm ka pre unul din argacii ti. 

§ 6T. Such, is the general view of the languages de- 
rived from the Latin, i. e., of the languages of the Latin 
branch of the Classical stock. * 



FKOM THE LATIN. 39 

The French requires to be more roinutely exhibited. 

Between the provincial French of the north and the 
provincial French of the south, there is a difference, at 
the present day, at least of dialect, and perhaps of lan- 
guage. This is shown by the following specimens : the 
first from the canton of Arras, on the confines of Flanders ; 
the second from the department of Yar, in Provence. 
The date of each is a.d. 1807. 

I. 

Luke XV. 11. 

11. A-in hotnme avoiiait deeux garcheons. 

12. L'pus jone dit a sain pere, "Main p^re, baill6 m'chcu qui doiio 
me 'r v'nir ed vous bien," et lue p^re leu partit sain bien. 

13. Ain n'sais yur, tro, quate, cheon jours apr^s l'pus tio d'cn^a 
deeux efeans oyant r'cuelle tout s'n' heritt'main, s'ot' ainvoye dains 
nain pahis gramaiu loiion, du qu'il Achilla tout s'n' argint ain fageant 
I'braingand dains ches cabarets. 

14. Abord qu'il o eu tout bu, tout mie et tout drel^ il o v'nu adonc 
dains eh' pahis lo ainn' famaine cruiielle, et i c'mainchouait d'avoir fon-ye 
d' pon-ye (t. e. faim de pain). 

II. 

THE SAME. 

11. Un home avi6 dous enfans. 

12. Lou plus pichoun diguet a son paire, "Moun paire, dounas ml ce 
qu6 mi reven de vouastr6 ben ;" lou paire faguet lou partag6 de tout ce 
que poussedavo. 

13. Paou de jours apres, lou pichoun vendet tout se qu^ soim paire 11 
avie desamparat, et s'en anet dins un pais fourco luench, ounte dissipet tout 
soun ben en debaucho. 

14. Quand aguet tou arcaba, uno grosso famino arribet dins aqueou 
pais et, leou, si veguet reduech a la demiero mis^ro. 

Practically speaking, although in the central parts of 
France the northern and southern dialects melt into each 



40 ToAKGUAGES DEEIYED 

other, the Loire may be considered as a line of demarca- 
tion between two languages ; the term language being 
employed because, in the Middle Ages, whatever may 
be their real diJSference, their northern tongue and the 
southern tongue were dealt with not as separate dialects, 
but as distinct languages — ^the southern being called Pro- 
ven§al, the northern Norman-French. 

Of these two languages (for so they will in the fol- 
lowing pages be called, for the sake of convenience) the 
southern, or Provengal, approaches the dialects of Spain ; 
the Yalencian of Spain and the Catalonian of Spain 
being Provencal rather than standard Spanish or Cas- 
tilian. 

The southern French is sometimes called the Langue 
d'Oc, and sometimes the Limousin. 

§ 68. The Norman-French, spoken from the Loire 
to the confines of Flanders, and called also the Langue 
d'Oyl, difi'ered from the Proven9al in (amongst others) the 
following circumstances. 

1. It was of later origin ; the southern parts of Gaul 
having been colonized at an early period by the Romans. 

2. It was in geographical contact, not with the allied 
languages of Spain, but with the Gothic tongu&s of Ger- 
many and Holland. 

§ 69. It is the Norman-French that most e{?pecially 
bears upon the history of the English language. 

Specimen from the Anglo-Norman poem, of 
Charlemagne. 

Un jur fu Karleun al Seint-Denis muster, 
Reout prise sa corune, en croiz seignat sun chef^ 
E ad ceinte sa espee : li pons fud d'or mer. 
Dux i out e demeines e baruns e chevalers. 
Li emper^res reguardet la reine sa muillers. 



FROM THE LATIN. 41 

Ele fut ben corunee al plus bel e as meuz. 
H la prist par le poin desuz un oHver, 
De sa pleine parole la prist a reisuner : 
" Dame, veistes unkes hume nul de desuz ceil 
Tant ben seist espee ne la corone el chef? 
Uncore cunquerrei-jo citez ot mun espeez." 
Cele ne fud pas sage, folement respondeit : 
" Emperere," dist-ele, trop vus poez preiser, 
" Uncore en sa-jo un ki plus se fait leger, 
Quant il porte corune entre ses chevalers ; 
Kaunt il met sur sa teste, plus belement lui set." 

In the nortliern Frencli we must recognise not only a 
Celtic and a Classical, but also a Gothic element : since 
Clovis and Charlemagne were no Frenchmen, but Ger- 
mans. The Germanic element in French has still to be 
determined. 

In the northern French of Normandy there is a second 
Gothic element, viz.^ a Scandinavian element. See § 76. 



42 QUESTIONS. 



QUESTIONS 

1. What arc the present languages of "Wales, the Isle of Man, the Scotch 
Highlands, and Ireland I 

2. What are the present languages of Germany and Holland ? How 
are they related to the present language of England ? How to the original 
language of England ? 

8. Enumerate the chief supposed migrations from Germany to England, 
giving (when possible) the date of each, the particular German tribe 
by which each was undertaken, and the parts of Great Britain where 
the different landings were made. Why do I say supposed migrations ? 
Criticise, in detaU, the evidence by which they are supported, and state 
the extent to which it is exceptionable. Who was Beda ? What were the 
sources of his information ? 

4. Give reasons for beheving the existence of Germans in England 
anterior to A. d. 447. 

5. Who are the present Jutlanders of Jutland ? Who the inhabitants 
of the district called Anglen in Sleswick ? What are the reasons for con- 
necting these with the Jutes and Angies of Beda ? What those for 
denying such a connection ? 

6. What is the meaning of the termination -uarii in Cant-uarii and 
Vect-uarii ? What was the Anglo-Saxon translation of Antiqui Sazones, 
Occidentales Saxones, Orientates Saxones, Meridionales Saxones ? What 
are the known variations in the form of the word Vectis, meaning the 
Isle of Wight ? What those of the root Jut- as the name of the inhabit- 
ants of the peninsula of Jutland ? 

1, Translate Cantware, Wihtware, into Latin, How does Alfred 
triinslate Juice ? How does the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle ? What is the 
derivation of the name Carishrooh, a town in the Isle of Wight ? 

8. Take exception to the opinions that Jutes, from Jutland, formed 
part of the Germanic invasion of England ; or, rather, take exceptions to 
the evidence upon which that opinion is based. 

9. From what part of Germany were the Angles derived? What 



QUESTIONS. 48 

IB Bcda's? what Ethelweard's statement concerning them ? Wlio vrere the 
Angli of Tacitus ? 

10. What is the derivation of the word Mercia ? 

11. Give the localities of the Old Saxons, and the Northalbingiana. 
Investigate the area occupied by the Anglo-Saxons. 

12. What is the present population of the Dutch frovince of Fries- 
land ? What its language ? What the dialects and stages of that lan- 
guage ? 

13. What was the language of the Asega-bog, the Heliand, Beowulf, 
Hildubrand and Hathubrant, the Carolinian Psalms, the Gospels of Ulphi- 
las, and the poems of Gysbert Japicx ? 

14. Make a map of Ancient Germany and Scandinavia according to 
languages and dialects of those two areas. Exhibit, in a tabular form, the 
languages of the Gothic stock. Explain the meaning of the words Gothic, 
and Moeso- Gothic, and Platt-Deutsch. 

15. Analyze the Scandinavian forms Solen, Bordet, and hrennast. 

16. Exhibit the difference between the logical and the historical ana- 
lysis of a language. 

lY. What are the Celtic names for the English language ? 

18. Enumerate the chief Germanic populations comiected. by 
ancient writers with the Angles, stating the Ethnological relations of 
each, and noticing the extent to which they coincide with those of the 
Angles. 

19. What are the reasons for believing that there is a Frisian element 
in the population of England? 

20. Exhibit, in a tabular form, the languages and dialects of the Celtic 
stock. To which division did the Gallic of ancient Gaul, and the Pict be- 
long ? Support the answer by reasons. What were the relations of the 
Picts to the Gaelic inhabitants of Scotland ? What to the Lowland Scotch ? 
What to the Belgae ? 

21. Explain the following words — petorritum, pempedula, candetum, 
Epona, Nantuates, peann fahel and Bernicia. What inferences do you 
di'aw from the derivation of them ? 

22. Exhibit, in a tabular form, the languages and dialects of the Clas- 
sical stock. 

23. What is the bearing of the statements of Tacitus and other an- 
cient writers respecting the following Germanic populations upon the eth« 
nological relations of the Angles, — Aviones, Reudigni, Suevi, Langobardi, 
Frisii, Vai-ini I 



44: QUESTIONS. 

'24. "What is meant by the follo-wdug terms, Provencal, Langue d'Oc» 
Langue d'Oyl, Limousin, and JTorman-French ? 

25. What languages, besides the Celtic and Latin, enter into the com- 
position of the French f 



CELTIC ELEMENTS. 45 



PART IL 

mSTORY AND ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



CHAPTER I. 

HISTORICAL AND LOGICAL ELEMENTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

§ 70. The Celtic elements of tlie present English fall 
into five classes. 

1. Those that are of late introduction, and cannot be 
called original and constituent parts of the language. 
Some of such are the words flannel, crowd (a fiddle), 
from the Cambrian ; and kerne (an Irish foot-soldier), 
galore (enough), tartan, plaid, &c., from the Gaelic 
branch. 

2. Those that are originally common to both the Celtic 
and Gothic stocks. Some of such are brother, mother, in 
Celtic brathair, mathair ; the numerals, &c. 

3. Those that have come to us from the Celtic, but 
have come to us through the medium of another language. 
Some of such are druid and bard, whose immediate source 
is, not the Celtic but the Latin. 

4. Celtic elements of the Anglo-Norman, introduced 
into England after the Conquest, and occurring in that 
language as remains of the original Celtic of Gaul. 



46 



CELTIC ELEMENTS. 



5. Those tliat have been retained from the oriorinal 

o 

Celtic of the island, and which form genuine consti- 
tuents of our language. These fall into three subdivi- 
sions. 

a. Proper names — generally of geographical localities ; 
as the Thames^ Kent^ &c. 

h. Common names retained in the provincial dialects 
of England, but not retained in the current language ; as 
gwethall = household stuffs and gwlanen= flannel in 
Herefordshire. 

c. Common names retained in the current language. — 
The following list is Mr. Garnett's : — 



Welsh. 


English. 


Welsh. 


English. 


Basgawd 


Basket. 


GreideU 


Grid in. Gridiron. 


Berfa 


Barrow. 


Grual 


Gruel. 


Botwm 


Button. 


Gwald (hem 


I Welt. 


Bran 


Bran. 


border) 


Clwt 


Clout, Rag. 


Gwiced (Uttk 


I Wicket, 


Crochan 


Crockery. 


door) 


Grog 


Crook, Hook. 


Gwn 


Gown. 


Cwch 


Cock, in Cock-hoat. 


Gwyfr 


Wire. 


Cwysed 


Gusset. 


Masg (stitch 


\Mesh. 
Mattock 


Cyl, Cyln 


_ Kiln {Kill, pro- 
vinc). 


in netting] 
Mat tog 


Dantaeth 


Dainty. 


Mop 


Mop., 


Darn 


Darn. 


Ehail 


\ Rail. 

\ Rasher 
Rug. 


Deentur 
Fflaim 


j Tenter, in Tenter- 
\ hook. 

j Fleam, Cattle-lan- 
\ cet. 


(fence) 
Rhashg 

(shce) 
Rhuwch 


Fflaw 


Flaio. 


Sawduriaw 


Solder. 


Ffynnell 


• Funnel. 


Syth (glue) 


Size. 


(air-hole) 


Tacl 


Tackle. 


Gefyn (fetter 


) Gyve. 







§ 71. Latin of the first period. — Of the Latin intro- 
duced by Caesar and his successors, the feT7 vrords re- 



DANISH ELEMENTS. 47 

maining are those that relate to military affairs ; viz. 
street {strata)] -coin (as in Lincoln= Lindi colonia)] 
-cest- (as in Gloucester =glevce castra) from castra. 
The Latin words introduced between the time of Caesar 
and Hengist may be called the Latin of the first period, 
or the Lati?i of the Celtic period. 

§ 72. The Anglo-Saxon. — This is not noticed here, 
because, from being the staple of the present language, it 
is more or less the subject of the book throughout. 

§ T3. The Danish^ or Norse. — The pirates that pil- 
laged Britain, under the name of Danes, were not exclu- 
sively the inhabitants of Denmark. Of the three Scan- 
dinavian nations, the Swedes took the least share, the 
Norwegians the greatest, in these invasions. 

The language of the three nations was the same ; the 
differences being differences of dialect. It was that 
which is now spoken in Iceland, having been once com- 
mon to Scandinavia and Denmark. 

The Danish that became incorporated with our lan- 
guage, under the reign of Canute and his sons, may be 
called the direct Danish element, in contradistinction to 
the indirect Danish of § 76. 

The determination of the amount of Danish in English 
is difficult. It is not difficult to prove a word Scandina- 
vian ; but, then, we must also show that it is not Ger- 
man as well. A few years back the current opinion was 
against the doctrine that there was much Danish in Eng- 
land. At present, the tendency is rather the other way. 
The following facts are from Mr. Garnett. — " Phil. Trans." 
vol. i. 

1. The Saxon name of the present town of Whithy in 
Yorkshire was Streoneshalch. The present name Whithy i 
Hvitby, or Whitetown, is Danish. 



48 DAXISH ELEilEXTS. 

2. The Saxon name of the capital of Derbyshire was 
Northiceortheg. The present name is Danish. 

3. The termination -hy = town is Norse. 

4. On a monument in Aldburgh church, Holdernessej 
in the East Ridino; of Yorkshire, referred to the ao;e of 
Edward the Confessor, is found the following inscrip- 
tion : — 

rflf het arseran cyrice for hanum and for Gunthara saula. 
" Ulf bid rear the church for him and for the soul of Gunthar." 

Now, in this inscription, Ulf, in opposition to the 
Anglo-Saxon Wulf is a Norse form ; whilst hanum is a 
Norse dative, and by no means an Anglo-Saxon one. — 
Old Norse hanum. Swedish honom. 

5. The use of at for to as the sign of the infinitive 
mood is Norse, not Saxon. It is the regular prefix 
in Icelandic, Danish, Swedish, and Feroic. It is also 
found in the northern dialects of the Old English, and 
in the particular dialect of Westmoreland at the present 
day. 

6. The use of sum for as ; e g., — swa sum we for- 
give om^e detturs. 

7. .Isolated words in the northern dialects are Norse 
rather than Saxon. 



Provincial. 


Common Dialect. 


Korse. 


Braid 


Resemble 


Braas, Swed. 


Eldin 


Firing 


Eld, Dan. 


Force 


Waterfall 


Fors, D. Swed. 


Gar 


Make 


Gora, Swed. 


GiU 


Ravine 


GE, Iceland. 


Greet 


Weep 


Grata, Iceland 


Ket 


Carrion 


Kiod== flesh, Dan, 


Lait 


Seek 


Lede, Dan. 


Lathe 


Barn 


Lade, Dan. 


Lile 


Little 


Lille, Dan. 



Jl 



AKGLO-NORMAN ELEMENTS. 49 

§' 74. Roman of the second period. — Of tlie Latin 
introduced under the Christianised Saxon sovereigns, 
many words are extant. The relate chiefly to ecclesi- 
astical matters, just as the Latin of the Celtic period 
bore upon military afi'airs. Mynster^ a minster, monas- 
terium ; portic, a porch, porticus ; cluster, a cloister, 
claustrum ; munuc, a monk, monachus ; bisceop, a bishop, 
episcopus ; arcebisceop, archbishop, archiepiscopus ; sanct, 
a saint, sanctus ; profost, a provost, propositus; pall, a 
pall, pallium; calic, a chalice, calix ; candel, a candle, 
candela ; psalter, a psalter, "psalterium, ; mcesse, a mass, 
missa; pistel, an epistle, epistola; prcedic-ian, to preach, 
prcedicare ; prof-ian, to prove, probare. 

The following are the names of foreign plants and ani- 
mals : — camell, a camel, camelus ; yip, elephant, elephas ; 
■ficbeam, fig-tree, ficus; feferfuge, feverfew, febi^fuga; 
peterselige, parsley, petroselinum. 

Others are the names of articles of foreign origin, as 
fipor, pepper, piper ; j)urpur, purple, purpura; pumic- 
stan^ pumicestone, pumex. 

This is the Latin of the second, or Saxon period. 

§ 75. The Anglo-Norman • element. — For practical 
purposes we may say that the French or Anglo-Norman 
element appeared in our language after the battle of 
Hastings, A. D. 1066. 

Previous, however, to that period we find notices of in- 
tercourse between- the two countries. 

1. The residence in England of Louis Outremer. 

2. Ethelred II. married Emma, daughter of Richard 
Duke of Normandy, and the two children were sent to 
Normandy for education. 

3. Edward the Confessor is particularly stated to 
have encouraged French manners and the French lan- 
guage in England. 

4 



50 ANGLO-NOEMAN ELEMENTS 

4. Ingulphus of Croydon speaks of liis own knowledge 
of French. 

5. Harold passed some time in Normandy. 

6. The French article la, in the term la Drove, occurs 
in a deed of a. d. 975, 

The chief Anglo-Norman elements of onr language are 
the terms connected with the feudal system, the terms 
relating to war and chivalry, and a great portion of the 
law terms — duke, count, bar on, villain, service, chivalry, 
warrant, esquire, challenge, domain, &c. 

§ 76. When we remember that the word Norman 
means man of the north, that it is a Scandinavian, and 
not a French word, that it originated in the invasions of 
the followers of Rollo and and other Norwegians, and that 
just as part of England was overrun by Pagan bucca- 
neers called Danes, part of France was occupied by 
similar Northmen, we see the likelihood of certain Norse 
words finding their way into the French language, 
where they would be superadded to its original Celtic and 
Roman elements. 

The extent to which this is actually the case has only 
been partially investigated. It is certain, however, that 
some French words are Norse or Scandinavian. Such, 
for instance, are several names of geographical localities 
either near the sea, or the river Seine, in other words, 
within that tract which was most especially occupied by 
the invaders. As is to be expected from the genius of 
the French language, these words are considerably altered 
in form. Thus, 

NORSE. ENGLISH. TRENCH. 

Toft Toft Tot. 

Beck . Beck Bee. 

Hot Fleet* Fleur, &a 



* Meaning ditch. 



LATIN OF FOUETH PERIOD. 51 

and in these shapes thej appear in the Norman names 
Yvetot, Caudebec, and IIarJleur,'6cc. 

Now any words thus introduced from the Norse of 
Scandinavia into the French of Normandy, might, by 
the Norman Conquest of England, be carried further, and 
so find their way into the English. 

In such a case, they would constitute its indirect 
Scandinavian element. 

A list of these words has not been made ; indeed 
the question requires far more investigation than it 
has met with. The names, however, of the islands 
Guerns-ey^ Jers-ey^ and Aldern-ey. are certainly of the 
kind in question — since the -ey, meaning island, is the 
same as the -ey in Orkn-ey, and is the Norse rather than 
the Saxon form. 

§ 77. Latin of the third period. — This means the 
Latin which was introduced between the battle of 
Hastings and the 'revival of literature. It chief .y ori- 
ginated in the cloister, in the universitie3; and, to a 
certain extent, in the courts of law. It luuBt be distin- 
guished from the indirect Latin introduced as part and 
parcel of the Anglo-Norman. It has yet to be accu- 
rately analyzed. 

§ 78. Latin of the fourth period.- -This means the 
Latin which has been introduced between the revival of 
literature and the present time. It has originated in the 
writings of learned men in general, and is distinguished 
from that of the previous periods by : 

1. Being less altered in form : 

2. Preserving, with substantives, in many cases its 
original inflections; axis, axes ; basis, bases: 

3. Relating to objects and ideas for which the 
increase of the range of science in general has required 
a nomenclature. 



52- LATIN OF FOUETH PEKIOD. 

§ 79. Greek, — Words derived directly from the 
Greek are in the same 'predicament as the Latin of the 
third period — phcenomenon, phcenomena; criterion, crite- 
ria, (fee. ; words which are only indirectly of Greek 
origin, being considered to belong to the language from 
which they were immediately introduced into the English. 
Such are deacon, priest, &c., introduced through the 
Latin. Hence a word like church proves no more in 
regard to a Greek element in English, than the word 
abhot proves in respect to a Syrian one. 

§ 80. The Latin of the fourth period and the Greek 
agree in retaining, in many cases, original inflexions 
rather than adopting the English ones ; in other words, 
they agree in being but imperfectly incorporated. The 
phsenomenon of imperfect incorporation is reducible to the 
following rules : — 

1. That it has a direct ratio to the date of the intro- 
duction, i.e., the more. recent the word' the more likely it 
is to retain its original inflexion. 

2. That it has a relation to the number of meanings 
belonging to the words : thus, when a single word has 
two meanings, the original inflexion expresses one, the 
English inflexion another — genius, genii, often (spirits), 
geniuses {men of genius). 

3. That it occurs with substantives only, and that only 
in the expression of number. Thus, although the plural 
of substantives like axis and genius are Latin, the posses- 
sive cases are English. So also are the degrees of com- 
parison for adjectives, like circular, and the tenses, <fec. 
for verbs, Y^k.^ perambulate. 

§ 81. The following is a list of the chief Latin sub- 
stantives introduced during the latter part of the fourth 
period ; and preserving the Latin plural forms — 



LATIN OF FOUETH PERIOD. 



53 



FIRST CLASS. 
Words wherein the Latin plural is tho'same as the J^atin singular. 



{a) Shiff. 

Apparatus 

Hiatus 

Impetus 



Plur. 
apparatw6 
biatws 
impet?fs 



(6) Sing. 


Plur. 


Caries 


canes 


Congeries 


congeries 


Series 


series 


Species 


species 


Superficies 


superficies 



SECGN'D CLASS. 

Words wherein the Latin plural is formed from the latin singular by 
changing the last si/llahle. 

(a). — Where the si7igular termination -a is changed in the plural 
into -cB : — 



Sing. 


Plur. 


Formula 


formuIcE 


Lamina 


laminte 


Larva 


laxYce 


fl,)^^ Where 


the singular 


intc -i : — 




Sing. 


Plur. 


Calculws 


calculi 


Coiossics 


colossi 


Convolvuhts 


convolvuK 


Yocus 


foce 


Genms 


genii 


Magus 


magi 


Nautilws 


nautili 


(Esophagus 


oesophagi 


^c).— WJiere 


the singular 


into -a: — 




Sing. 


Plur. 


Animalcub/wi animalcula 


Arcani^?n 


arcana 


Collyrii<?7i 


coUyria 


Dat?«m 


data 


Desideraium desiderata 



Sing. 


Plur. 


Nebula 


nebuloe 


Scoria 


scorice. 



Sing. 


Plur. 


Poljpws 


polypi 


Radius 


radii 


Ranunculus 


ranunculi 


Sarcophagus 


sarcophagi 


Schirrhws 


schirrhi 


Stimultw 


stimuli 


Tumul?<s 


tumuli 



Sing. 


Plur. 


Effluviuwi 


eflfluvia 


Emporiu??i 


emporia 


Encomi?fwi 


encomia 


Erratwm 


errata 


Gyranasi?<»i 


gymnasia 



64 


LATIN OF 


Sing. 


Plur. 


LixiviMwi 


lixivia 


JjViS-irum 


lustra 


Mausoleiim 


mausolea 


lA.eddum 


media 


Memorandwm 


memoranda 


Menstruwm 


menstrua 


MomentMW 


momenta 


{d). — Where the singrdar t 


i?ito -es : — 




Sing. 


Plur. 


Amanuenses 


amanuenses 


Analyst's 


analyses 


Antitheses 


antitheses 


Axis 


axes 


Basis 


bases 


Crises 


crises 



FOUETH PERIOD. 



Sing. 


Flur. 


Tremmm 


premia 


Scholii^?n 


scholia 


SpectrwTTi 


spectra 


Specul?^m 


specula 


Stratum 


strata 


SuccedaneM?7i 


succedanea. 



Diaereses 



diaereses 



Sing. 

Ellipse's 

Emphases 

Hypothese's 

Oases 

Parentheses 

Syntheses 

Theses 



Flur. 

ellipses 

emphases 

hypotheses 

oases 



syntheses 
theses 



THIRD CLASS. 

Words wherein the plural is formed by iiiserting -e between the last 
two sounds of the singular, so that the former mimber always contains a 
syllable more than the latter : — 



Sing. 






Plur. 


Apex 


sounded 


apec-s 


apices 


Appendix 


— 


appendic-s 


appendices 


Calix 


— 


calic-5 


calices 


Cicatrix 


— 


cicatric-s 


cicatrices 


Helix 


— 


helic-s 


helices 


Index 


— 


indec-s 


indices 


Radix 


— 


radic-s 


radices 


Vertex 


— 


vertec-s 


vertices 


Vortex 


-r- 


vortec-s 


vortices 



In all these words the c of the singular number is sounded as k^ 
plural, as s. 



of the 



§ 82. Tte following is a list of the chief Greek 



MISCELLANEOUS ELEMENTS. 



65 



substantives lately introduced, and preserving the Greek 
plural forms — 

FIRST CLASS. 

Worda where the singular termination -on is changed in the plural 
into -a : — 

Sing. Flur. 

Criterion. criteria 

Ephemero?i ephemera 

Fhaenoraenon phaenomena. 



Sing. 


Flur. 


Aphelio/i 


aphelia 


Perihelio/i 


perihelia 


Automaton 


automata 



SECOND CLASS. 

Words where the plural is formed from the original rvot hy adding 
either -es or -a, but where the singular rejects the last letter of the original 
root. 

Flurals in -es : — 



Original roof. 
Apsid- 
Cantharid- 


Flur. 
apsides 
cantharides 


8^ ^ 


Chrysalid- 

Ephemerid- 

Tripod- 


chrysalides 

ephemerides 

tripodes 

Flurals in -a : — 


chrysalis 

ephemeris 

tripos. 


Original root. 
Dogmat- 
Lemmat- 


Flur. 

dogmata 

lemmata 


Sing. 
dogma 
lemma 


Miasmat- 


miasmata 


miasma.* 



§ 83. Miscellaneous elements. — Of miscellaneous ele- 
ments we liave two sorts ; tliose tliat are incorporated 
in our language, and are currently understood (e. g., the 
Spanish, word sherry, the Arabic word alkali, and the 
Persian word turban), and those that, even amongst the 
educated, are considered strangers. Of this latter kind 

* This list is taken from Smart's valuable and logical English 
Grammar. 



56 MISCELLANEOUS ELEMENTS. 

(amongst many others) are the oriental words hummum^ 
kaftan^ giil, &c. 

Of tlie currently understood loiscellaneous elements of 
tlie English language, the most important are from the 
French ; some of which agree with those of the Latin of 
the fourth period, and the Greek, in preserving the French 
plural forms — as bean, beaux, billets-doux. 

Italian. — ^Some words of Italian origin do the same ; 
as virtuoso, virtuosi. 

Hebrew. — The Hebrew words, cherub and seraph do 
the same ; the form cherub-im, and seraph-ini being not 
only plurals but Hebrew plurals. 

Beyond the words derived from these five languages, 
none form their plural other than after the English 
method, i. e., in -s, as waltzes, from the German word 
xoaltz. 

§ 84. Hence we have a measure of the extent to which 
a language, which, like the English, at one and the same 
time requires names for many objects, comes in contact 
with the tongues of half the world, and has moreover, 
a great power of incorporating foreign elements, derives 
fresh words from varied sources ; as may be seen from 
the following incomplete notice of the languages which 
have, in different degrees, supplied it with new terms. 

Arabic. — Admiral, alchemist, alchemy, alcohol, alcove, 
alembic, algebra, alkali, assassin. 

Persian. — Turban, caravan, dervise, &c. 

Turkish. — Coffee, bashaw, divan, scimitar, janisary, 
(fcc. 

Hindoo languages. — Calico, chintz, cowrie, curry, lac, 
muslin, toddy, &c. 

Chinese. — Tea. bohea, congou, hyson, soy, nankin 
&c. 



MISCELLANEOUS ELEMENTS. 57 

Malay. — Bantam (fowl), gamboge, rattan, sago, shad- 
dock, (fee. 

Polynesian. — Taboo, tattoo. 

Tungusian or some similar Siberian language. — 
Mammoth, the bones of wbicli are chiefly from the banks 
of the Lena. 

North American Indian. — Squaw, wigwam, pemmi- 
can. 

Peruvian. — Charki = prepared meat ; whence jerked 
beef. 

Caribbean. — Hammock. 

§. 85. A distinction is drawn between the direct and 
indirect, the latter leading to the ultimate origin of 
words. 

Thus a word borrowed into the English from the 
French, might have been borrowed into the French from 
the Latin, into the Latin from the Greek, into the Greek 
from the Persian, &c., and so ad infinitum^. 

The investigation of this is a matter of literary curio- 
sity rather than any important branch of philology. 

The ultimate known origin of many common words 
sometimes goes back to a great date, and points to extinct 
languages — 

Ancient Nubian. — Barbarous. 

Ancient Egyptian. — Ammonia. 

Ancient Syrian. — Cyder. 

Ancient Lycian. — Pandar. 

Ancient Lydian. — Maeander. 

Ancient Persian. — ^Paradise. 

§ 86. Again, a word from a given language may be 
introduced by more lines than one ; or it may be intro- 
duced twice over ; once at an earlier, and again at a 
later period. In such a case its form will, most pro- 
bably, vary ; and, what is more, its meaning as well. 
4* 



58 MISCELLANEOUS ELEMENTS. 

Words of this sort may be called di-morphic, their dh 
morphism having originated in one of two reasons — a 
difference of channel or a difference of date. Instances 
of the first are, syrup, sherbet, and shrub, all originally 
from the Arabic, srb ; but introduced differently, viz., 
the first through the Latin, the second through the Per- 
sian, and the third through the Hindoo. Instances of 
the second are words like minster, introduced during the 
Anglo-Saxon, as contrasted with monastery, introduced 
during the Anglo-Norman period. By the proper ap- 
plication of these processes, we account for words so dif- 
ferent in present form, yet so identical in origin, as priest 
and presbyter, episcopal and bishop, ^c. 

§ 8T. Distinction, — The history of the languages that 
have been spoken in a particular country, is a different 
subject from the history of a particular language. The 
history of the languages that have been spoken in the 
United States of America, is the history of Indian lan- 
guages. The history of the languages of the United 
States is the history of a Germanic language. 

§ 88. Words of foreign simulating a vernacular ori- 
gin. — These may occur in any mixed language whatever ; 
they occur, however, oftener in the English than in any 
other. 

Let a word be introduced from a foreign language 
— let it have some resemblance in sound to a real Enghsh 
term : lastly, let the meanings of the two words be not 
absolutely incompatible. We may then have a word 
of foreign origin taking the appearance of an English 
one. Such, amongst others, are beef-eater, from bmuf- 
fetier ; sparrow-gruss, asparagus ; Shotover, Chateau- 
Vert ;* Jerusalem, Girasole ;t Spanish beefeater, spina 

* As in Shotover Hill, near Oxford. 
f As in Jeriisalein artichoke. 



MISCELLANEOUS ELEMENTS. 59 

bifida ; periwig, peruke ; runagate, renegade ; lute- 
string, liistrino ;* O yes, Oyez ! ancient, ensign.^ 

Dog-cheap. — This lias nothing to do with dogs. The 
first syllable is god = good transposed, and the second 
the ch-p in chapman { = merchant) cheap, and East- 
cheap. In Sir J. Mandeville, we find god-kepe=good 
bargain. 

Skylarking. — Nothing to do with larks of any sort ; 
still less the particular species, alauda arvensis. The 
word improperly spelt l-a-r-k, and banished to the slang 
regions of the English language, is the Anglo-Saxon lac 
=game, or sport ; wherein the a is sounded as in father 
(not as in farther). Lek=game, in the present Scan- 
dinavian languages. 

Zachary Macaiday = Zumalacarregui ; Billy Ruf- 
fian = Bellerophon ; Sir Roger Dowlas = Surajah Dow- 
lah, although so limited to the common soldiers and 
sailors, who first used them, as to be exploded vulgarisms 
rather than integral parts of the language, are examples 
of the same tendency towards the irregular accommodation 
of misunderstood foreign terms. 

Birdholt. — An incorrect name for the gadus lota, or 
ell-pout, and a transformation of harhote. 

Whistle-fish. — The same for gadus Tuustela, or weasel- 
fish. 

Liquorice = glycyrrhiza. 

Wormwood == weremuth, is an instance of a word from 
the same language, in an antiquated shape, being equally 
transformed with a word of really foreign origin. 

§ 89. Sometimes the transformation of the 7iame has 
engendered a change in the object to which it applies, 
or, at least, has evolved new ideas in connection with it. 
How easy for a person who used the words beef-eater. 

* A sort of silk. f Ancient Cassio — " Othello." 



60 MISCELLANEOUS ELEMENTS. 

sparroiv-grass, or Jerusalem, to believe that the officers 
designated by the former either eat or used to eat more 
beef than any other people ; that the second word was the 
name for a grass or herb of which sparrows were fond ; 
and that Jerusalem artichokes came from Palestine. 

"What has just been supposed has sometimes a real 
occurrence. To account for the name of SJiotover-hill, I 
have heard that Little John shot over it. Here the 
confasion, in order to set itself right, breeds a fiction. 
Again, in chess, the piece now called the queen, was 
originally the elephant. This was in Persian, ferz. 
In French it became vierge, which, in time, came to be 
mistaken for a derivative, and virgo = the virgin, the. 
lady, the queen. 

§ 90. Sometimes, where the form of a word in re- 
spect to its sound is not affected, a false spirit of accom- 
modation introduces an unetymological spelling ; as 
frontispiece, from frontispecium, sovereign, from sov- 
rano, colled^gue from collega, lanthorn (old orthography) 
from lanterna. 

' The value of forms like these consists in their showing 
that language is affected by false etymologies as well as 
by true ones. 

§ 91. In lambkin and lancet, the final syllables [-kin 
and -et) have the same power. They both express the 
idea of smallness or diminutiveness. These words are 
but two out of a multitude, the one {Jam})) being of 
Saxon, the other {lance) of Norman origin. The same 
is the case with the superadded syllables : -kin being 
Saxon ; -et Norman. Now to add a Saxon termination 
to a Norman word, or vice versd,^ is to corrupt the English 
lanojuao'e. 

This leads to some observation respecting the — 



MISCELLANEOUS ELEMENTS. 61 

§ 92. Introduction of new words and Hybridism. — 
Hybridism is a term derived from hyhrid-a^ a inongrel ; 
a Latin word of Greek extraction. 

The terminations -ize (as in criticize)^ -ism (as in crit- 
icism), -ic (as in comic) — these, amongst many others, are 
Greek terminations. To add them to words not of Greek 
origin is to be guilty of hybridism. Hence, witticism, is 
objectionable. 

The terminations -hie (as in penetraole\ -hility (as in 
penetrability)^ -al (as in parental) — these, amongst many 
others, are Latin terminations. To add them to words not 
of Latin origin is to be guilty of hybridism. 

Hybridism is the commonest fault that accompanies 
the introduction of new words. The hybrid additions to 
the English language are most numerous in works on sci- 
ence. 

It must not, however, be concealed that several well 
established words are hybrid ; and that, even in the wri- 
tings of the classical Roman authors, there is hybridism 
between the Latin and the Greek. 

Nevertheless, the etyjnological view of every word of 
foreign origin is, not that it is put together in England, 
but that it is brought whole fron^, the language to which it 
is vernacular. Now no derived word can be brought whole 
from a language unless, in that language, all its parts ex- 
ist. The word penetrability is not derived from the Eng- 
lish word penetrable.) by the addition of -ty. It is the 
Latin word penetrabilitas imported. 

In derived words all the parts must belong to one and 
the same language, or, changing the expression, every 
derived word must have a possible form, in the language 
from which it is taken. Such is the rule again3t hy- 
bridism. 

§ 93. A true word sometimes takes the appearance of 



62 MISCELLAIs^EOUS ELEMENTS. 

a hybrid without really being so. Tbe -icle, in icicle, is 
apparently tbe same as tbe -icle in radicle. Now, as ice 
is Gotbic, and -icle classical, bybridism is simulated. Icicle, 
however, is not a derivative but a compound ; its parts be- 
ing is and gicel, both Anglo-Saxon words.* 

§ 94. On incompletion of the radical. — Let there be 
in a given language a series of roots ending in -t, as scemat. 
Let a euphonic influence eject the -t, as often as the word 
occurs in the nominative case. Let the nominative case 
be erroneously considered to represent the root, or radical, 
of the word. Let a derivative word be formed accord- 
ingly, i. e., on the notion that the nominative form and the 
radical form coincide. Such a derivative will exhibit only 
a part of the root ; in other words, the radical will be in- 
complete. 

Now all this is what actually takes place in words hke 
hcemo-ptysis {spitting of blood), sema-phore {a sort of 
telegraph). The Greek imparisyllabics eject a part of the 
root in the nominative case ; the radical forms being hce- 
mat- and soemat-, not hcem- and seem-. 

Incompletion of the radical is one of the commonest 
causes of words being coined faultily. It must not, how- 
ever, be concealed, that qyen in the classical writers, we 
have in words like S/o-royLio? examples of incompletion of 
the radical. 

§ 95. The preceding chapters have paved the way for 
a distinction between the historical analysis of a language, 
and the logical analysis of one. 

Let the present language of England (for illustration's 
sake only) consist of 40,000 words. Of these let 30,000 

* Be she constant, be she fickle, 
Be she flame, or be she ickle. 

Sir 0. Sedley. 



MISCELLANEOUS ELEMENTS. 63 

be Anglo-Saxon, 5,000 Anglo-Norman, 100 Celtic, 10 
Latin of the first, 20 Latin of tlie second, and 30 Latin of 
the third period, 50 Scandinavian, and the rest miscellane- 
ous. In this Qase the language is considered according to 
the historical origin of the words that compose it, and the 
analysis is an historical analysis. 

But it is very evident that the English, or any other 
language, is capable of being contemplated in another 
view, and that the same number of words may be very dif- 
ferently classified. Instead of arranging them according 
to the languages whence they are derived, let them be 
disposed according to the meanings that they convey. 
Let it be said, for instance, that out of 40,000 words, 
10,000 are the names of natural objects, that 1000 denote 
abstract ideas, that 1000 relate to warfare, 1000 to church 
matters, 500 to points of chivalry, 1000 to agriculture, 
and so on through the whole. In this case the analysis 
is not historical but logical; the words being classed 
not according to their origin, but according to their 
meaning. 

Now the logical and historical analyses of a language 
generally in some degree coincide ; that is, terms for a 
certain set of ideas come from certain languages ; just as 
in English a large proportion of our chemical terms are 
Arabic, whilst a still larger one of our legal ones are 
Anglo-Norman. 



M EELATION OF THE ENGLISH, 



CHAPTER II. 



THE RELATION OF THE ENGLISH TO THE ANGLO-£AXCi»'^ ANi 
THE STAGES OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

§ 96. The relation of the present Englisli to tlie An- 
glo-Saxon is tliat of a modern language to an ancient 
one : tlie words modern and ancient being used in a de- 
fined and technical sense. 

Let the word smv6um illustrate this. tSmi^-iim, the 
dative plural of sniv6, is equivalent in meaning to the 
Enghsh to smiths, or to the Latin fahr-is. Sm^um, 
however, is a single Anglo-Saxon word (a substantive, 
and nothing more) ; whilst its English equivalent is two 
words (i. e., a substantive with the addition of a preposi- 
tion). The letter 5, in smiths, shows that the word is plu- 
ral. The -um, in sm^i^UTn, does this and something more. 
It is the sign of the dative case plural. The -u?n in 
smi^u?n, is the part of a word. The preposition to is a 
separate word with an independent existence. Smi^um, 
IS the radical syllable smi^ + the subordinate inflectional 
syllable -U7n, the sign of the dative case. The combina- 
tion to smiths is the substantive smiths -j- the preposition 
to, equivalent in power to the sign of a dative case, but 
different from it in form. As far, then, as the words just 
quoted is concerned, the Anglo-Saxon differs from the 
English by expressing an idea by a certain rnodification 
of the form of the root, whereas the modem English de- 
tjotes the same idea by the addition of a preposition ; in 



TO THE ANGLO-SAXON. 65 

other words, the Saxon inflection is superseded by a co?n 
bvnation of words. 

The sentences in italics are mere variations of the 
same general statement. 1. The earlier the stage of a 
given language the greater the amount of its inflection- 
al forms^ and the later the stage of a given language^ 
the smaller the amount of them. 2. As languages be- 
come modern they substitute prepositions and auxiliary 
verbs for cases and tenses. 3. l^he amount of inflection 
is in the inverse proportion to the am^ount of prepositions 
and auxiliary verbs. 4. In the course of time languages 
drop their inflections, and substitute in its stead circum- 
locutions by means of prepositions, ^c. The reverse 
never takes place. 5. GiveJi two modes of expression, 
the one inflectional (smi'6um), the other circumlocutional* 
(to smiths), we can state that the first belongs to an early, 
the second to a late, state of language. 

The present chapter, then showing the relation of the 
English to the Anglo-Saxon, shows something more. It 
exhibits the general relation of a modern to an ancient 
language. As the English is to the Anglo-Saxon, so are 
the Danish, Swedish, and Norwegian, to the old Norse ; 
and so are the French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Ro- 
manese and Wallachian to the Latin, and the Romaic to 
the ancient Greek. 

§ 97. Contrasted with the English, the Anglo-Saxon 
has (among others) the following differences. 

NOUNS. 

1. Gender. — In Anglo-Saxon there were three gen- 
ders, the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter. With 
adjectives each gender had its peculiar, declension. With 

* Or periphrastic. 



66 RELATION OF THE ENGLISH. 

substantives also there were appropriate terminations, 
tliougli only to a certain degree. 

2. The definite article varied with the gender of its 
substantive ; ]>cet eage, the eye ; se steorra, the star ; sec 
tu7ige, the tongue. 

3. Number. — The plural form in -en (as in oxen), rare 
in English, was common in Anglo-Saxon. It was the 
regular termination of a whole declension ; e. g., edgan, 
eyes ; steorra?!, stars ; tungan, tongues. Besides this, 
the Anglo-Saxons had forms in -u and -a as ricu, king- 
doms ; gifa, gifts. The termination -s, current in the 
present English, was confined to a single gender and to a 
single declension, as endas, ends ; dagas, days ; smv6as, 
smiths. 

4. Case. — Of these the Saxons had, for their substan- 
tives, at least three ; >iz., the nominative, dative, genitive. 
With the pronouns and adjectives there was a true accu- 
sative form ; and with a few especial words an ablative or 
instrumental one. S7nv6, a smith ; smrte, to a smith ; 
smvtes, of a smith. Plural, smi^as, smiths ; smvtum, 
to smiths ; smv6a, of smiths : he, he ; hine, him ; him, to 
him ; his, his : se, the ; fa, the ; fy, with the ; f am, to 
the ; ]>CBS, of the. 

5. Declension. — In Anglo-Saxon it was necessary to 
determine the declension of a substantive. There was 
the weak, or simple declension for words ending in a vowel 
(as, eage, steorra, tunga), and the strong declension for 
words ending in a consonant (smi'6^ sprcec, leaf). The 
letters i and u were dealt with as semivowels, sami-vowels 
being dealt with as consonants ; so that words like sunu 
and gifu belonged to the same declension as smi^ and 
sprcec. 

6. Definite and indefinite form of adjectives. — In 
Anglo-Saxon each adjective had two forms, one definite 



TO THE ANGLO-SAXON. 37 

and one indefinite. There is nothing of this kind in 
English. We say a good sword, and the good sword 
equally. In Anglo-Saxon, however, the first combina- 
tion would be se gode sweord, the second tn god sweord, 
the definite form being distinguished from the indefinite 
by the addition of a vowel. 

T. Pronouns personal. — The Anglo Saxon language 
had for the first two persons a dual number ; inflected as 
follows : 

Is^ Person. 2nd Person. 

Nom. Wit We two Ifotn. Git Ye two. 

Ace. Unc ZTs two Ace. Ince You two 

Gen. Uncer Of us two Gen. Incer 0/ you two. 

Besides this, the demonstrative, possessive, and relative 
pronouns, as well as the numerals twa and f reo, had a 
fuller declension than they have at present. 

VERBS. 

8. Mood. — The subjunctive mood that in the present 
English (with one exception*) differs from the indicative 
only in the third person singular, was in Anglo-Saxon 
considerably different from the indicative. 

Indicative Mood. 

Pres. Sing. 1. Lufige. Plur. 1. ^ 

2. Lufast. 2. > LufiaS. 

3. LufaS 3. S 



Subjunctive Mood. 
Pres. Sing. 1. "i Plur. 1. J 

Lufige 2. > Lufion. 

3.) 



'ing. 1. J 



* That of the verb substantive, if I were, subjunctive, as opposed to 
/ was, indicative. 



68 EELATIO^^ OF THE EXGLISH 

The Saxon infinitive ended in -an {liijian), and besides 
this there "was a so-called gerundial fornij to lujigenne. 

Besides these there were considerable differences in 
respect to particular words ; but of these no notice is 
taken ; the object being to indicate the differences betiveen 
the ancient and modern stages of a language in respect to 
grammatical structure. 

9. To bring about these changes a certain amount of 
tims is, of course, necessary ; a condition which suggests 
the difficult question as to the rate at which languages 
change. This is different for different languages ; but as 
the investigation belongs to general philology rather than 
to the particular history of the English language, it finds 
no place here. 

§ 98. The extent, however, to which external causes 
may accelerate or retard philological changes, is not foreign 
to our subject ; the influence of the Norman Conquest, 
upon the previous Anglo-Saxon foundation, being a prob- 
lem of some difficulty. 

At the first glance it seems to have been considerable, 
especially in the way of simplifying the grammar. Yet 
the accuracy of this view is by no means unequivocal. 
The reasons against it are as follows : 

a. In Friesland no such conquest took place. Yet the 
modern Frisian, as compared with the ancient, is nearly 
as simple in its grammatical structure, as the English is 
when compared with the Anglo-Saxon. 

h. In Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, no such con- 
quest took place. Yet the modern Danish and Swedish, 
as compared with the Old Norse, are nearly as simple in 
their grammatical structure, as the English is, when com- 
pared with the Anglo-Saxon. 

The question requires more investigation than it has 
met with. 



TO THE ANGLO-SAXON. 69 

An extract from Mr. Hallam's " History of Literature" 
closes the present section, and introduces the next. 

"Nothing can be more difficult, except by an arbitrary line, than 
to determine the commencement of the English language; not so 
rauch, as in those on the Continent, because we are in want of ma- 
terials, but rather from an opposite reason, the possibility of showing 
a very gradual succession of verbal changes that ended in a change 
of denomination. We should probably experience a similar difficulty, 
if we knew equally well the current idiom of France or Italy in the 
seventh and eighth centuries. For when we compare the earUest 
English of the thirteenth century with the Anglo-Saxon of the twelfth, 
it seems hard to pronounce why it should pass for a separate language, 
rather than a modification or simplification of the former. We must 
conform, however, to usage, and say that the Anglo-Saxon was con- 
verted into English: — 1. By contracting and otherwise modifying 
the pronunciation and orthography of words. 2. By omitting many 
inflections, especially of the noun, and consequently making more use 
of articles and auxiliaries. 3. By the introduction of French deriva- 
tives. 4. By using less inversion and ellipsis, especially in poetry. 
Of these, the second alone, I think, can be considered as sufiicient to 
describe a new form of language ; and this was brought about so 
gradually, that we are not relieved from much of our difficulty, as to 
whether some compositions shall pass for the latest offspring of the 
mother, or the earlier fruits of the daughter's fertility. It is a proof 
of this difficulty that the best masters of our ancient language have lately 
introduced the word Semi-Saxon, which is to cover everything from a. d. 
1150 to A. i>. 1250."— Chapter i. 4Y. 



§ 99. This -shows that by the middle of the 12th cen- 
tury, the Anglo-Saxon of the standard Anglo-Saxon au- 
thors, had undergone such a change as to induce the 
scholars of the present age to denominate it, not Saxon, 
but Semi-Saxon. It had ceased to be genuine Saxon, but 
had not yet become English. 

Some, amongst others, of the earlier changes of the 
standard Anglo-Saxon are, 

1. The substitution of -a/i for -as, in the plural of 



70 RELATION OF THE ENGLISH 

substantives, munucan for munucas {monks) ; and, con- 
versely, the substitution of -5 for -n, as steorres for 
steorran [stars). 

2. The ejection or shortening of final vowels, "i^cet 
ylc for Y<^i ylce ; sone for sunu ; name for nama ; dages 
for dagas. 

3. The substitution of -n for -m in the dative case, 
hwilon for hwilum. 

4. The ejection of the -n of the infinitive mood, cum^me 
for cum^an {to com^e), nemne for nem^nen {to name), 

6. The ejection of -e^^ in the participle passive, i^Ao^e 
for gehaten (called, hight). 

6. The gerundial termination -enne, superseded by the 
infinitive termination -en ; as to lufian for to lufienne, or 
lufigenne. 

7. The substitution of -en for -ab in the persons plu- 
ral of verbs ; hi clepen {they call) for hi clypia^, (fee. 

The preponderance (not the occasional occurrence) of 
forms like those above constitute Semi-Saxon in contra- 
distinction to standard Saxon, classical Saxon, or Anglo- 
Saxon proper. 

§ 100. Old English stage. — Further changes convert 
Semi-Saxon into Old English. Some, amongst others, are 
the following : — 

1. The ejection of the dative plural termination -um,, 
and the substitution of the preposition to and the plural 
sign -s ; as to sTniths for smi^um. Of the dative sing- 
gular the -e is retained {ende, worde) ; but it is by no 
means certain that, although recognized in writing, it was 
equally recognized in pronunciation also. 

2. The ejection of -es in the genitive singular whenever 
the preposition of came before it ; Godes love ( God^s 
love), but the love of God, and not the love of Godes. 

3. The syllable -es as a sign of the ' genitive case ex- 



TO THE ANGLO-SAXON. 71 

tended to all genders and to all declensions ; heart's for 
heortan ; sun^s for sunnan. 

4. The same in respect to the plural number ; sterres 
for steorran ; sons for suna. 

5. The ejection of -na in the genitive plural ; as of 
tunges for tungena. 

6. The use of the word the, as an article, instead of 
56, (fcc. 

The preponderance of the forms above (and not their 
mere occasional occurrence) constitutes Old English in 
contradistinction to Semi-Saxon. 

§ 101. In the Old English the following forms pre- 
dominate. 

1. A fuller inflection of the demonstrative pronoun, 
or definite article ; \an^ ]>enne, ]>c8re, ]>a?n ; — in contra- 
distinction to the Middle English. 

2. The presence of the dative singular in -e ; ende, 
smithe. 

3. The existence of a genitive plural in -r or -ra ; 
heora^ theirs ; aller, of all. This, with substantives and 
adjectives, is less common. 

4. The substitution of heo for they^ of heora for their ^ 
of hem for them. 

5. A more frequent use of m,in and thirty for m^y and 
thy ; — in contradistinction to both Middle and Modern 
English. 

6. The use of heo for she ; — in contradistinction to 
Middle and Modern English and Old Lowland Scotch. 

7. The use of broader vowels ; as in iclepnd or icle- 
fod (for icleped or yclept) ; geongost. youngest ; ascode, 
asked ; eldore, elder. 

8. The use of the strong preterits {see the chapter on 
the tenses of verbs), where in the present English the 
weak form is found — wex, ivop, dalf, for waxed, loept, 
delved. 



72 EELATION OF THE ENGLISH 

9. The omission not only of the gerundial termina- 
tion -enne, but also of the infinitive sign -e7i after to ; to 
honte, to speke ; — in contradistinction to Semi-Saxon. 

10. The substitution of ~en for -e]> or -e^, in the first 
and second persons plural of verbs ; we wollen, we will : 
heo schullen, they should. 

11. The comparative absence of the articles se and seo. 

12. The substitution of ben and beeth, for s]/nd and 
syiidon = we, ye, they are. 

§ 102. Concerning the extent to which the Anglo- 
Norman was usedj I retail the following statements and 
quotations. 

1. " Letters even of a private nature were written in Latin till the 
beginning of the reign of Edward L, soon after 12*70, when a sudden 
change brought in the use of French." — Mr. Hallam, communicated by Mr. 
Stevenson {Literature of Europe, i. 52, and note). 

2. Conversation between the members of the Universities was ordered 
to be carried on either in Latin or French: — " Si qua inter seproferant, 
4olloguio Latino vel saltern Gallico perfruanturr — Statutes of Oriel 
College, Oxford. — Hallam, ibid, from "Warton, 

3. " The Minutes of the Corporation of London, recorded in the Town 
Clerk's Office, were in French, as well as the Proceedings in Parliament, 
and in the Courts of Justice." — Ibid. 

4. " In Grammar Schools, boys were made to construe their Latin into 
French " — Ibid. " Fueri in scholis, contra morem cceterarum nationum, et 
Normannorum adventu, derelicto proprio vulgari, construere Gallice com- 
pelluntur. Item quod filii nobilium ab ipsis cunabulorum crepundiis ad 
Gallicum idioma informantur. Quibus profecto rurales homines assi- 
midari volentes, ut per hoc spectabiliores videantur, Francigenari aatagunt 
omni nisu." — Higden {Ud. Gale, p. 210). 

§ 103. The reigns of Edward III., and Richard II., 
may be said to form a transition from the Old to the 
Middle ; those of Mary and Elizabeth from the Middle to 
the New, Recent or Modern English. No very definite 
line of demarcation, however can be drawn. 



TO THE ANGLO-SAXON. 73 

§ lOJ:. The present tendencies of tlie English may be 
determined by observation : and as most of them will be 
noticed in the etymological part of this volume, the few 
here indicated must be looked upon as illustrations only. 

1. The distinction between the subjunctive and indi- 
cative mood is likely to pass away. We verify this by the 
very general tendency to say if it is, and if he speaks, 
rather than if it be, and if he speak. 

2. The distinction between the participle passive and 
the past tense is likely to pass away. We verify this by 
the tendency to say it is broke, and he is smote, for it is 
broken and he is smitten. 

3. Of the double forms, sung and sang, drank and 
drunk, &c., one only will be the permanent. 

As stated above, these tendencies are but a few out of 
many, and have been adduced in order to indicate the 
subject rather than to exhaust it. 



74 QUESTIONS. 



QUESTIOI^^S. 

1. Classify the Celtic elements of the English language. 

2. Enumerate the chief periods during which words from the Latia 
were introduced into English, and classify the Latin elements ac- 
cordingly. 

3. What words were introduced directly by the Danes, Scandinar 
yians, or Norsemen? "What indirectly? Through what language did 
these latter come ? 

4. Give the dates of the Battle of Hastings, and of the reigns of 
Louis Outremer, Ethelred II., and Edward the Confessor. What was 
the amount of Norman-French elements in England anterior to the Con- 
quest ? 

5. Give the languages from whence the following words were intro- 
duced into the English— ^anne? jerked (as to beef), hammoch, apparatus, 
waltz, Seraph, plaid, street, muslin. 

6. Distinguish between the direct, indirect, and ultimate origin of 
introduced words. What words have we in English which are supposed 
to have originated in the Ancient ^Egyptian, the Syrian, and the languages 
of Asia Minor ? 

7. Lender what diiferent forms do the following words appear in 
English — monasterium, Trpecr^vTepos, iTria-Koiros. Account for these differ- 
ences. Syrup, shrub, and sherbet, all originate from the same word. 
Explain the present difference. 

8. Give the direct origin (i.e., the languages from which they were 
imjnediately introduced) of — Druid, epistle, chivalry, cyder, mccander. 
Give the indirect origin of the same. 

9. Investigate the process by which a word like sparrow-grass, ap- 
parently of English origin, is, in reahty, derived from the Latin word 
asparagus. Point out the incorrectness in the words frontispiece, col* 
league, and lanthorn, 



QUESTIONS. 75 

10. To what extent may Norse, and to what extent may Celtic words, 
not found in the current language of English, be found in the provincial 
dialects ? 

1 1. What were the original names of the towns Whitby and Derby ? 
From what language are the present names derived ? Give the reason for 
your answer. 

12. Show the extent to which the logical and historical analyses 
coincide in respect to the words introduced from the Roman of the second 
period, the Arabic, the Anglo-Norman, and the Celtic of the current 
English. 

13. What are the plural forms oi. criterion, axis, genixis, index, dogma? 
When is a word introduced from a foreign language perfectly, when 
imperfectly incorporated with the language into which it is imported ? Is 
the following expression correct — the cherubim that singeth aloft ? If not, 
why? 

14. What is there exceptionable in the words semaphore (meaning 
a sort of telegraph), and witticism. Give the etymologies of the words 
icicle, radicle, and radical. 

15. What are the singular forms of cantharides, pjhcenomena, and 
data ? 

16. WTiat are the stages of the English language? How does the 
present differ from the older ones ? 

VI. Exhibit in detaU the inflections of the Anglo-Saxon a) noun, 
and b) verb, which are not found in the present EngHsh. What is 
the import of the loss of inflections, and their replacement by sepa- 
rate words? What is the nature of such words in nouns? What in 
verbs ? 

18. Contrast the syntax of the Anglo-Saxon with the Modern 
English adjective. What is the English for the Anglo-Saxon words wit, 
unc, incer ? 

19. Express, in general terms, the chief points wherein a modem 
language differs from an ancient one : or, rather, the points wherein the 
different stages of the same language differ, 

20. Investigate the influence of the JSTorman Conquest on the 
English, Explain the terms Semi-Saxon, Old English, and Middle 
English. Compare the stages of the English with those of the other 
Gothic tongues. 

21. Give the Modern English for the following forms and ex- 
piessions — munucas, steorran, to lufienne. What are the Anglo-Saxon 
forms of munucan, steorres, i-hotte, clepen? Translate the Latin word 
omnium (genitive plm'al of omnis) into Old English, Translate 



76 QUESTIONS. 

the Greek 6, 4 t^ into Anglo-Saxon, Old English, and Modem 
English. 

22. Investigate the extent to •which the Anglo-lTorman superseded 
the Anglo-Saxon subsequent to the Conquest. Is any further change in 
the grammatical structure of our language probable ? If so, what do you 
consider "will be the nature of it * 



PART III 

SOUOTDS, LETTEES, PE0NU1S"CIA110N. BPELLma 



CHAPTER I. 

GENERAL NATURE AND CERTAIN PROPERTIES OF ARTICULATE 
SOUNDS. 

§ 105. To two points connected -svitli the subject 
of the following chapter, the attention of the reader is 
requested. 

a. In the comparison of sounds the ear is liable to be 
misled by the eye. Thus — 

The syllables ka and ga are similar syllables. The 
vowel is in each the same, and the consonant is but 
slightly different. Hence the words ka and ga are more 
allied to each other than the words ka and ha^ ka and 
ta^ &c., because the consonantal sounds of k and g are 
more allied than the consonantal sounds of /: and 6, k 
and t. 

Comparing the syllables ga and ka, we see the 
affinity between the sounds, and we see it at the first 
glance. It lies on the surface, and strikes the ear at 
once. 

It is, however, very evident that ways might be 
devised, or might arise from accident, of concealing the 



78 NATUEE AND PROPERTIES 

likeness between tlie two sounds, or, at any rate, of 
making it less palpable. One of such, ways would be 
a faulty mode of spelling. If instead of ga we wrote 
gha the following would be tbe effect : the syllable would 
appear less simple than it really was ; it would look as 
if it consisted of three parts instead of two, and con- 
sequently its affinity to ka would seem less than it really 
was. It is perfectly true that a little consideration w^ould 
tell us that, as long as the sound remained the same, 
the relation of the two syllables remained the same also ; 
and that, if the contrary appeared to be the case, the 
ear was misled by the eye. Still a little consideration 
would be required. Now in the English language we 
have (amongst others) the following modes of spelling 
that have a tendency to mislead ; — 

The sounds of 'ph and of/, in Philip mndiJlUip, differ 
to the eye, but to the ear are identical. Here a differ- 
ence is simulated. 

The sounds of th in thin, and of th in thitie, differ to 
the ear but to the eye seem the same. Here a difference 
is concealed. 

Furthermore. These last sounds appear to the eye to 
be double or compound. This is not the case ; they are 
simple single sounds, and not the sounds of t followed by 
h, as the spelling leads us to imagine. 

b. Besides improper modes of spelling, there is another 
way of concealing the true nature of sounds. If I say 
that ka and ga are allied, the alliance is manifest ; since 
I compare the actual sounds. If I say ka and gee are 
allied, the aEiance is concealed; since I compare, not 
the actual sounds, but only the names of the letters that 
express those sounds. Now in the English language we 
have (amongst others) the following names of letters that 
have a tendency to mislead : — 



OF ARTICULATE SOUNDS. 79 

The sounds fa and va are allied. Tbc names eff and 
vee conceal this alliance. 

. The sounds sa and za are allied. The names ess and 
zed conceal the alliance. 

In comparing sounds it is advisable to have nothing to 
do either with letters or names of letters. Compare the 
sounds themselves. 

§ 106. In many cases it is sufficient, in comparing con- 
sonants, to compare syllables that contain those conso- 
nants ; e. g-., in order to determine the relations of p, h. /, 
v^ we say jpa, ba, fa, va ; or for those of s and z, we say 
sa, za. Here we compare syllables, each consonant being 
followed by a vowel. At times this is insufficient. We 
are often obliged to isolate the consonant from its vowel, 
and bring our organs to utter (or half utter) the imperfect 
sounds of p\ b\ t\ d\ 

§ 107. Let any of the vowels (for instance, the a in 
father) be sounded. The lips, the tongue, and the parts 
within the throat remain in the same position ; and as 
long as these remain in the same position the sound is that 
of the vowel under consideration. Let, however, a change 
take place in the position of the organs of sound ; let, for 
instance, the lips be closed, or the tongue be applied to 
the front part of the mouth: in that case the vowel 
sound is cut short. It undergoes a change. It terminates 
in a sound that is different^ according to the state of those 
organs whereof the position has been changed. If, on 
the vowel in question, the lips be closed, there then arises 
an imperfect sound of h or p. If on the other hand, the 
tongue be applied to the front teeth, or to the fore- 
part of the palate, the sound is one (more or less imper- 
fect) of t or d. This fact illustrates the difference be- 
tween the vowels and the consonants. It may be verified 



80 XATUEE AND PEOPEETIES. 

by pronouncing tlie a in fate, ee in feet, oo in hook^ o m 
note, 6cc. 

It is a further condition in tlie formation of a vowel 
sound, tliat tlie passage of tlie breath be uninterrupted. 
In the sound of the F in lo (isolated from its vowel) the 
sound is as continuous as it is with the a in fate. Be- 
tween, however, the consonant I and the vowel a there is 
this difference : with a, the passage of the breath is unin- 
terrupted ; with Z, the tongue is applied to the palate, 
breaking or arresting the passage of the breath. 

§ 108. The primary division of our articulate sounds 
is into vowels and consonants. The latter are again di- 
vided into liquids (/, m. n, r) and mutes {p, h, f, v, t, d, k, 
g, s, z, &c.). 

§ 109. Sharp and flat. — Take the sounds of _p, /, t, 
k, s. Isolate them from their vowels, and pronounce them. 
The sound is the sound of a whisper. 

Let &, V, d, g, z, be similarly treated. The sound 
is no whisper, but one at the natural tone of our voice. 

Now p.f t, k, s (with some others that will be brought 
forward anon) are sharp, whilst b, v, &c., tire flat. Instead 
of sharp, some say hai^d, and instead of flat, some s^j soft. 
The terms sonant and surd are, in a scientific point of 
view, the least exceptionable. They have, however, the 
disadvantage of being pedantic. The tenues of the clas- 
sics (as far as they go) are sharp, the medicB flat. 

§ 110. Continuous and explosive. — Isolate the sounds 
of h, p)) t, d, k, g. Pronounce them. You have no power 
of prolonging the sounds, or of resting upon them. They 
escape with the breath, and they escape at once. 

It is not so with /, v, sh, zh. Here the breath is trans- 
mitted by degrees, and the sound can be drawn out and 
prolonged for an indefinite space of time. Now h, p, t^ 
&c., are explosive, /, v, &c., continuous. 



OF ARTICULATE SOUNDS. 81 

§ 111. Concerning the vowels, we may fa:edicate a) 
that they are all continuous, h) that they are all flat. 

Concerning the liquids, we may predicate a) that they 
are all continuous, h) that they are all flat. 

Concerning the mutes, we may predicate a) that one 
half of them is flat, and the other half sharp, and h) that 
some are continuous, and that others are explosive. 

112. — The letter h is no articulate sound, but only a 
breathing 



82 SYSTEM OP 



CHAPTER II. 

SYSTEM OF ARTICULATE SOUNDS. 

§ 113. — The attention of the reader is now directed to 
tlie following foreign vowel sounds. 

1. Tlie eferme^ of the French, — This is a sound allied 
to, but different from, the a in fate, and the ee in feet. 
It is intermediate to the two. 

2. The u of the French, u of the Germans, y of the 
Danes. — This sound is intermediate to the ee in feet, and 
the 00 in hook. 

3. The chiuso, of the Italians. — Intermediate to the 
in note, and the oo in book. 

For these sounds we have the following sequences : a 
in fate, e ferine, ee mfeet, u in uhel (German), oo in hook, 
chiuso, in note. And this is the true order of alli- 
ance among the vowels ; a in fate, and o in note, being 
the extremes ; the other sounds being transitional or 
intermediate. As the English orthography is at once 
singular and faulty, it exhibits the relationship but im- 
perfectly. 

§ 114. The system of the mutes. — Preliminary to the 
consideration of the system of the mutes, let it be ob- 
eerved : — 

1. that the th in thin is a simple single sound, different 

from the th in thine, and that it may be expressed by 
the sign ]?. 

2. That the th in thine is a simple single sound, different 



ARTICULATE SOUNDS. 83 

from the th in thin^ and that it may be expressed by 
the sign ^. 

3. That the sh in shine is a simple single sound, and 

that it may be expressed by the sign a* (Greek 

4. That the z in azure^ glazier (French j) is a simple 

single sound, and that it may be expressed by the 
sign f* (Greek ?7T6i). 

5. That in the Laplandic, and possibly in many other lan- 

guages, there are two peculiar sounds, different from 
any in English, German, and French, (fee, and that 
they may respectively be expressed by the sign k and 
the sign j* (Greek Kairira and 'ydfjuiJ.a). 
§ 115. With these preliminary notices we may exhibit 
the system of the sixteen mutes ; having previously deter- 
mined the meaning of two fresh terms, and bearing in mind 
what was said concerning the words sharp and flat, con- 
tinuous and explosive. 

Lene and aspirate. — From the sound of _p in pat, the 
sound of / in fat differs in a certain degree. This differ- 
ence is not owing to a difference in their sharpness or flat- 
ness; Each is sharp. Neither is it owing to a difference 
in their continuity or explosiveness ; although / is contin- 
uous, whilst p is explosive. This we may ascertain by con- 
sidering the position of s. The sound of 5 is continuous ; 
yet s, m respect to the difference under consideration, is 
classed not with / the continuous sound but with p the 
explosive one. This difference, which has yet to be pro- 
perly elucidated, is expressed by a particular term ; and 
jj is called lene, f is called aspirate. 

As /is to p so is V io h. 
As 2; is to 6 so is ]> to t. 

^ This by no means implies that such was the po"sver of a, ^, 7, «•, va. 
Greek. They are merely convenient symbols. 



84 SYSTEM OF 

As f is to ^ SO is b to d. 

As b is to c? so is k to k. 

As /c is to A; so is 7 to g. 

As 7 is to ^ so is <T to s. 

As cr is to 5 so is f to 2^. 

Hence p, 6, ^, c^, A:, ^, s^ z, are Ze?ie ; /, v^ f , ^j a:, 7, 
cr, f, are aspirate. Also p, /, ^, ]?, k^ k, s, ct, are sharp, 
wliilst b, V, d, b, g", 7, ;2;, £ are flat ; so tliat there is a 
double series of relationship capable of being expressed 
as follows : — 



JLene. Aspirate. 

Sharp. Flat. Sharp. Flat. 

P S / ^ 

t d > S 

h g K 7 



Slmrp. Flat. 

Lene. Aspirate. Lene. Aspirate 

p f b V 

t ^ d ^ 

k K g y 

s a- z C 



All the so-called aspirates are continuous ; and, with 
the exception of s and z, all the lenes are explosive. 

§ 116. I believe that in the fact of each mute appear- 
ing in a four-fold form (i. e., sharp, or flat, lene, or aspirate), 
lies the essential character of the mutes as opposed to the 
liquids. 

§ 117. Y and w. — These sounds, respectively inter- 
mediate to 7 and i (the ee in feet), and to v and u {00 in 
hook), form a transition from the vowels to the conso- 
nants. 

§ 118. The French word roi, and the English words 
oil, house, are specimens of a fresh class of articulations; 
viz., of compound vowel sounds or diphthongs. The 
diphthong oi is the vowel + the semivowel y. The 
diphthongal sound in roi is the vowel + the semivowel 
10. In roi the semivowel element precedes, in oil it 
follows. 



ARTICULATE SOUNDS. 85 

§ 119. The words quoted indicate the nature of the 
diphthongal system. 

1. Diphthongs with the semivowel w^ a) preceding, as 
in the French word roi, b) following, as in the English 
word neiu. 

2. Diphthongs with the semivowel y, a) preceding, as 
is common in the languages of the Lithuanic and Slavonic 
stocks, b) following, as in the word oil. 

3. Triphthongs with a semivowel both preceding and 
folloiving. 

The diphthongs in English are four ; ow as in house, 
ew as in new, oi as in oil, i as in bite, fight. 

§ 120. Chest, jest. — Here we have compound con 
sonantal sounds. The ch in chest = t-^sh; the j in 
jest = d-\- zh. I believe that in these combinations one 
or both the elements, viz., t and sh, d and zh, are modified ; 
but I am unable to state the exact nature of this modifica- 
tion. 

§ 121. Ng. — The sound of the 7ig in sing, king, 
throng, when at the end of a word, or of singer, ringing, 
(fee, in the middle of a word, is not the natural sound of 
the combination n and g, each letter retaining its natu- 
ral power and sound ; but a simple single sound, for 
which the combination 7ig is a conventional mode of ex- 
pression. 

§ 122. Compared with a in fate, and the o in note, a 
in father, and the aw in bawl, are broad ; the vowels of 
note and/a^e being slender. 

§ 123. In fat, the vowel is, according to common 
parlance, short ; in fate, it is long. Here we have the 
introduction of two fresh terms. For the words long 
and short, I substitute independent and dependent. If 
from the word fate I separate the final consonantal 
^sound, the syllable fa remains. In this syllable the a 



86 SFSTEM OF 

has precisely the sound that it had before. It remains 
unaltered. The removal of the consonant has in no- 
Vfise modified its sound or power. It is not so, however, 
with the vowel in the word fat. If from this I remove 
the consonant following, and so leave the a at the end of 
the syllable, instead of in the middle, I must do one of 
two things : I must sound it either as the a in fate, or 
else as the a in father. Its (so-called) short . sound it 
cannot retain, unless it be supported by a consonant fol- 
lowing. For this reason it is dependejit. The same is 
the case with all the so-called short sounds, viz., tbe e in 
bed, i in fit, u in bull, o in not, u in but. 

§ 124. It is not every vowel that is susceptible of every 
modification. I (ee) and u {oo) are incapable of becoming 
broad. The e in bed, although both broad and slender, is 
incapable of becoming independent. Tor the u in but, 
and for the o of certain foreign languages, I have no satis- 
factory systematic position. 

§ 125. Vowel System. 



Broad. 


Slender. 


Independent 


Independent. 


Dependent, 


a, in father . 


a, in fate. 


a, in fat. 


. 


e vnferm'e, long 


e, in ferme, short. 


e, in meine, Germ . 


. 


e, in bed. 


. 


ee, in feet 


i, pit. 


. 


u, of the German, long 


the same, short. 


. 


00, in booh 


ou, in could. 


. . . . 


in chniso . . . 


the same, short. 


aw, in bawl . 


0, in note 


0, in not. 



From these the semivowels w and y make a transi- 
tion to the consonants v and the so-called aspirate of gy 
respectively. 



ARTICULATE SOUNDS. 



8? 





§ 126. System of Consonants, 




lids. 


Mutes. 


SemivoKeh. 




Lene. 


Aspirate. 






Sharp. Flat. 


Sharp. Flat. 




m 


p V 


f 


w 


n 


t d 


> S 


, 


I 


Jc g 


f 7 


y 


r 


s z 


c 


. 



88 CERTAIN COMBINATIOKS 



CHAPTER III. 

OF CERTAIN COMBLN'ATIOXS OF ARTICULATE SOUNDS. 

§ 127. Certain combinations of articulate sounds are 
incapable of being pronounced. The folloTring rule is 
one that J in tlie forthcoming pages, will frequently be 
referred to. Two {or more) mutes, of different degrees of 
sharpness and flatness, are incapable of coming together 
in the same syllable. For instance, 6, v, d, g, z, &c., being 
fiat, and p, f t, k, s, &c., being sharp, such combinations 
as abt, avt, apd, afd, agt, akd, atz, ads, (fee, are unpro- 
nounceable. Spelt, indeed, they may be ; but all at- 
tempts at pronunciation end in a change of the com- 
bination. In this case either the flat letter is really 
changed to its sharp equivalent (6 to p, d to t, &c.) or 
vice versoL (p to b, t to d). The combinations abt and 
agt, to be pronounced, must become either apt or abd, or 
else akt or agd. 

The word m^utes in the third sentence of this section 
must be dwelt on. It is only with the mutes that there 
is an impossibility of pronouncing the heterogeneous 
combinations above-mentioned. The liquids and the 
vowels are fiat ; but the liquids and vowels, although 
flat, may be followed by a sharp consonant. If this were 
not the case, the combinations op, at, alp, alt, &c., would 
be unpronounceable. 

The semivowels, also, although flat, admit of being 
followed by a sharp consonant. 



OF AETICULATE SOUNDS. 89 

§ 128. Unstable combinations. — That certain sounds 
in combination with others have a tendency to undergo 
farther changes, may be collected from the observation 
of our own language, as w^e find it spoken by those around 
uSj or by ourselves. The diphthong ew is a sample 
of what may be called an unsteady or unstable com- 
bination. There is a natural tendency to change it 
either into oo or yoo ; perhaps also into yew. Hence neio 
is sometimes sounded noo, sometimes nyoo, and some- 
times nyeio. 

§ 129. Effect of the semivowel y on certain letters 
when they precede it. — Taken by itself the semivowel y, 
followed by a vowel (t/a^ yee^ yo, you^ (fcc), forms a 
stable combination. Not so, however, if it be preceded 
by a consonant, of the series t or s, as tya^ tyo ; dya, 
dyo ; sya^ syo. There then arises an unstable combi- 
nation. 8ya and syo we pronounce as sha and sho ; tya 
and tyo we pronounce as cha and ja {i. e., tsh^ dzh). 
This we may verify from our pronunciation of words 
like sure^ picture, verdure {shoor, pictshoor, verdzhoor), 
having previously remarked that the u in those words 
is not sounded as oo but as yoo. The effect of the semi- 
vowel y, taken with the instability of the combination ew. 
accounts for the tendency to pronounce dew as if written 
jew. 

§ 130. Double consonants rare. — It cannot be too 
clearly understood that in words like pitted, stabbing, 
massy, &c., there is no real reduplication of the sounds 
of t, b, and s, respectively. Between the words pitted 
(as with the small-pox) and pitied (as being an object of 
pity) there is a difference in spelling only. In speech 
the words are identical. The reduplication of the conso- 
nant is, in English and the generality of languages, a 



90 CERTALN" COMBESTATIONS 

conventional mode of expressing in writing the shortness 
or dependence^ of the voivel preceding. 

§ 131. Real reduplications of consonants, i. e., redu- 
plications of their sound, are, in all languages, extremely 
rare. In English they occur only under one condition. 
In compound and derived words, "\^^here the original root 
ends, and the superadded affix begins with the same 
letter, there is a reduplication of the sound and not other- 
wise. In the word soulless, the I is doubled to the ear as 
well as to the eye ; and it is a false pronunciation to call 
it souless (soless). In the " Deformed Transformed " it is 
made to rhyme with no less, improperly : — 

" Clay, not dead but soulless, 

Though no mortal man ^vould choose thee, 
An immortal no less 

Deigns not to refuse thee." 

In the following words, all of which are compounds, we 
have true specimens of the doubled consonant. 

n is doubled in unnatural, innate, oneness. 
I — soulless, civil-list, palely. 

h — book-case, 

t — seaport-town. 

It must not, however, be concealed, that, in the mouths 
even of correct speakers, one of the doubled sounds is often 
dropped. 

§ 132. True aspirates rare. — The criticism applied to 
Avords like pitted, <fcc., applies also to words like Philip, 
thin, thine, &c. There is therein no sound of h. How 
the so-called aspirates differ from their corresponding 
lenes has not yet been determined. That it is not by the 
addition of h is evident. Ph and th are conventional 
modes of spelling simple single sounds, which might better 
be expressed by simple single signs. 



OF AETICULATE SOUNDS. 91 

In our own language the true aspirates, like the true 
reduplications, are found only in compound words ; and 
there they are often slurred in the pronunciation. 

"We find 'p and h in the words haphazard, upholder. 



b and h 


— abhorrent, cub-hunting. 


/and h 


— knife-handle, offhand. 


V and h 


— stave-head. 


d and h 


— adhesive, childhood. 


< and A 


— nuthook. 


th and h 


— loithhold. 


h and k 


- inkhorn, bakehouse. 


g and h 


— gig-horse. 


s and A 


— race-horse, falsehood. 


z and h 


— exhibit, exhort. 


r and h 


— perhaps. 


I and h 


— wellhead, foolhardy. 


m and h 


— Amherst. 


nand A 


— unhinge, inherent, unhappy. 



92 EUPHONY AND PERMUTATION 



CHAPTEK lY. 

EUPHONY AND THE PERMUTATION OF LETTERS. 

§ 133. 1. Let there be two syllables of whicb tlie 
one ends in m^ and the other begins with r, as we have' 
in the syllables num- and -rus of the Latin word nu- 
merus. 

2. Let an ejection of the intervening letters bring 
these two syllables into immediate contact, numrus. 
The in and r form an unstable combination. To 
remedy this there is a tendency to insert an intervening 
sound. 

In English, the form which the Latin word nurnerus 
takes is nuwher ; in Spanish, nombre. The h makes no 
part of the original word, but has been inserted for the 
sake of euphony ; or, to speak more properly, by a eu- 
phonic process. The word euphony is derived from eu 
{ivell), and ^coi^?; {fojicE, a voice). 

§ 134. In the words give and gave we have a change 
of tense expressed by a change of vowel. In the words 
price and prize a change of meaning is expressed by a 
change of consonant. In clothe and clad there is a 
change both of a vowel and of a consonant. In the 
words to use and a use there is a similar change, although 
it is not expressed by the spelhng. To the ear the verb 
to use ends in z, although not to the eye. All these are 
instances o^ iYiQ perrnutation of letters. 



OF LETTERS. 



Perinutation of Vowels. 



a 


to 


e, 


as 


man, men. 


a 


to 


00, 


as 


stand, stood. 


a 


to 


w, 


as 


dare, durst. 


a 


to 


^, 


as 


was, were. 


ea 


to 


0, 


as 


speak, spoken. 


ea=4 


to 


ea=e, 


as 


breath, breathe. 


ee 


to 


e. 


as 


deep, depth. 


ea 


to 


0, 


as 


bear, bore. 


% 


to 


«, 


as 


spin, span. 


i 


to 


w, 


as 


spin, spun. 


l=ei 


to 


Of 


as 


smite, smote. 


i==ei 


to 


% 


as 


smite, smitten. 


i 


to 


a, 


as 


give, gave. 


i=ei 


to 


a, 


as 


rise, raise. 


X 


to 


e, 


as 


sit, set. 


<m 


to 


ew, 


as 


blow, blew. 


o 


to 


e, 


as 


strong, strength. 


CO 


to 


ee, 


as 


tooth, teeth. 


o 


to 


h 


as 


top, tip. 





to 


e, 


as 


old, elder; tell, told. 


d 


to 


^j 


as 


brother, brethren. 


5=00 


to 


«> 


as 


do, did. 


0=00 


to 


0=U 


as 


do, done. 


00 


to 


0, 


as 


choose, chose. 



Permutation of Consonants. 



f 


to 


V, 


life, live; calf, calves. 


> 


to 


s. 


breath, to breathe. 


> 


to 


d, 


seethe, sod; clothe, clad. 


d 


to 


t, 


build, built. 


s 


to 


z, 


use, to use. 



« to r, was, were; lose, forlorn. 

In have and had we have tlie ejection of a sound ; in 
work and wrought, the transposition of one. 



94 PEEMUTATION OF LETTERS. 

Permutation of Combinations, 



ie==i to 


ow, 


as 


grind, ground. 


ow to 


i=ei, 


as 


mouse, mice ; cow, kine. 


ink to 


augh, 


as 


drink, draught. 


ing to 


ough, 


as 


bring, brought. 


y (formerly g), 


ough, 


as 


bug, bought. 


igh=ei to 


ough, 


as 


fight, fought. 


eek to 


ough, 


as 


seek, sought. 



It must be noticed that the list above is far from 
being an exhaustive one. The expression too of the 
changes undergone has been rendered difficult on account 
of the imperfection of our orthography. The whole 
section has been written in illustration of the meaning 
of the word perTnutation, rather than for any specific 
object in grammar. 



FOKMATION OF SYLLABLES. 95 



CHAPTER V. 

ON THE FORMATION OF SYLLABLES. 

§ 135 In respect to the formation of syllables, I am 
aware of no more than one point that requires any espe- 
cial consideration. 

In certain Tvords, of more than one syllable, it is 
difficult to say to which syllable an intervening conso- 
nant belongs. Eor instance, does the v in river, and the 
e in fever, belong to the first or the second syllable ? Are 
the words to be divided thus, ri-ver, fe-ver7 or thus, 
riv-er, fe-ver 7 

The solution of the question lies by no means on the 
surface. 

In the first place, the case is capable of being viewed 
in two points of view — an etymological and a phonetic 
one. 

That the c and r in become, berhymed, <fcc., belong to 
the second syllable, we determine at once by taking the 
words to pieces ; whereby we get the words come and 
rhymed in an isolated independent form. Eut this fact, 
although it settles the point in etymology, leaves it as it 
was in phonetics ; since it in nowise follows, that, because 
the c in the simple word com^e is exclusively attached to 
the letter that succeeds, it is, in the compound word 
become, exclusively attached to it also. 

To the following point of structure in the consonantal 
sounds the reader's attention is particularly directed. 



9(3 FORMATIOX OF SYLLABLES. 

1. Let tlie vowel a (as in fate) be sounded. — 2. Let 
it be folloTved by the consonant p, so as to form the syl- 
lable ap. To form tlie somid of p, it will be found tliat 
tlie lips close on tbe sound of a, and arrest it. Now, if 
tbe lips be left to tliemselves they will not remain closed 
on the sound, but will open again; in a slight degree 
indeed, but in a degree sujfficient to cause a kind of 
vibration, or, at any rate, to allow an escape of the 
remainder of the current of breath by which the sound 
was originally formed. To re-open in a slight degree is 
the natural tendency of the lips in the case exhibited 
above. 

Now, by an effort, let this tendency to re-open be 
counteracted. Let the remaining current of breath be 
cut short. "We have, then, only this, viz.^ so much of 
the syllable dp as can be formed by the closure of the 
lips. All that portion of it that is caused by their re- 
opening is deficient. The resulting sound seems trun- 
cated, cut short, or incomplete. It is the sound of p, 
minus the remnant of breath. All of the sound p that is 
now left is formed, not by the escape of the breath, but by 
the arrest of it. 

The p in dp is ajijial sound. With initial sounds the 
case is different. Let the lips be closed, and let an at- 
tempt be made to form the syllable pa hj suddenly 
opening them. The sound appears incomplete ; but its 
incompleteness is at the beginning of the sound, and not 
at the end of it. In the natural course of things there 
would have been a current of breath preceding, and this 
current would have given a vibration, now wanting. All 
the sound that is formed here is formed, not by the arrest 
of breath, but by the escape of it. 

I feel that this account of the mechanism of the appa- 
rently simple sound p, labours under all the difficulties 



FORMATION OF SYLLABLES. ^7 

tliat attend the description of a sound ; and for this reason 
I again request the reader to satisfy himself either of its 
truth or of its inaccuracy, before he proceeds to the con- 
clusions that will be draT\Ti from it. 

The account, however, being recognized, we have in 
the sound of ^, two elements : — 

1. That formed by the current of air and the closure 
of the lips, as in ap. This may be called the sound of 
breath arrested. 

2. That formed by the current of air, and the opening 
of the lips, as in pa. This may be called the sound of 
breath escaping, 

Now what may be said of p may be said of all the 
other consonants, the words tongue, teeth, (fee, being used 
instead of lips, according to the case. 

Let the sound of breath arrested be expressed by tt, 
and that of breath escaping be expressed by '^, the two 
together formp (7r + ^=jo). 

Thus ap (as quoted above) is p — zi, ox ir ; whilst pa 
(sounded similarly is p — ir, or •cr. 

In the formation of syllables, I consider that the 
sound of breath arrested belongs to the first, and the 
sound of breath escaping to the second syllable ; that if 
each sound were expressed by a separate sign, the word 
happy would be divided thus, hair-'my', and that such 
would be the case with all consonants between two sylla- 
bles. The whole consonant belongs neither to one syllable 
nor the other. Half of it belongs to each. The reduplica- 
tion of the p in happy, the t in pitted, &c., is a mere 
point of spelling. 



98 ON QUANTITY. 



CHAPTER YI. 



ON QUANTITY. 



§ 136. The dependent vowels, as tTie a in fat^ i in fit, 
u in huty in not, have the character of being uttered 
with rapidity, and they pass quickly in the enunciation, 
the voice not resting on them. This rapidity of utterance 
becomes more evident when we contrast with them the 
prolonged sounds of the a in fate, ee in feet, oo in book, 
or in 7iote ; wherein the utterance is retarded, and 
wherein the voice rests, delays, or is prolonged. The / 
and t of fate are separated by a longer interval than 
the / and t of fat ; and the same is the case with fit, 
feet, (fee. 

Let the n and the t of not be each as 1, the o also 
being as 1 ; then each letter, consonant or vowel, shall 
constitute i of the whole word. 

Let, however, the n and the t of not be each as 1, the 
being as 2. Then, instead of each consonant constitut- 
ing i of the w^hole word, it shall constitute but i. 

Upon the comparative extent to which the voice is pro- 
longed, the division of vowels and syllables into lo7ig' and 
short has been estabhshed : the o in note being long, the 
in not being short. And the longness or shortness of a 
vowel or syllable is said to be its qua7itity. 

§ 137. Attention is directed to the word vowel. The 
longness or shortness of a vowel is one thing. The long- 
ness or shortness of a syllable another. This difference is 



ON QUANTITY, 99 

important in prosody ; especially in comparing the English, 
with the classical metres. 

The vowel in the syllable see is long ; and long it re- 
mains, whether it stand as it is, or be followed by a conso- 
nant, as in see-n, or by a vowel, as in see-ing. 

The vowel in the word sit is short. If followed by a 
vowel it becomes unpronounceable, except as the ea in seat 
or the i in sight. By a consonant, however, it may be 
followed. Such is the case in the word quoted — sit. Fol- 
lowed by a second consonant, it still retains its shortness, 
e. g.^ sits. Whatever the comparative length of the syl- 
lables^ see and seen^ sit and sits, may be, the length of 
their respective vowels is the same. 

Now, if we determine the character of the syllable by 
the character of the vowel, all syllables are short where- 
in there is a short vowel, and all are long wherein 
there is a long one. Hence, measured by the quantity of 
the vowel, the word sits is short, and the syllable see- in 
seeing is long. 

§ 138. But it is well known that this view is not the 
view commonly taken of the syllables see (in seeing) and 
sits. It is well known, that, in the eyes of a classical 
scholar, the see (in seeing) is short, and that in the word 
sitsAhQ i is long. 

The classic differs from the Englishman thus, — He 
measures his quantity, not by the length of the voivel, but 
by the length of the syllable taken altogether. The per- 
ception of this distinction enables us to comprehend the 
following statements. 

a. That vowels long by nature may appear to become 
short by position, and vice verscL. 

b. That, by a laxity of language, the vowel may be 
said to have changed its quantity, whilst it is the syllable 
alone that has been altered. 



100 ON QUANTITY. 

c. That if one person measures his quantities by the 
vowels, and another by the syllables, what is short to the 
one, shall be long to the other, and vice versd. The same 
is the case with nations. 

d. That one of the most essential differences between 
the English and the classical languages is that the quan- 
tities (as far as they go) of the first are measured by the 
vowel, those of the latter by the syllable. To a Roman 
the word monument consists of two short syllables and 
one long one ; to an Englishman it contains three short 
syllables. 



ON ACCENT. 101 



CHAPTER VII. 



ON ACCENT. 



§ 139. In the word tyrant there is an emphasis, or 
stress, upon the first syllable. In the word 'presume 
there is an emphasis, or stress, on the second syllable. 
This emphasis, or stress, is called accent. The circum- 
stance of a syllable bearing an accent is sometimes ex- 
pressed by a mark (') ; in which case the word is. said to 
be accentuated, i. e., to have the accent signified in 
writing. 

Words accented on the last syllable — Brigade^ 'pre- 
tence^ harpoOn, relieve^ deter ^ o^sume^ besCught^ bereft, 
before, abroad, abode, abstruse, intermix, superadd, 
cavalier. 

Words accented on the last syllable but one — An!chor, 
ar'gue, hasten, father, fOxes, smiting, husband, market, 
vapour, barefoot, archangel, bespatter, disable, terrific. 

Words accented on the last syllable but two — Reg'u- 
lar, an'tidote, for'tify, susceptible, incontrovertible. 

Words accented on the last syllable but three (rare) — 
Receptacle, regulating, talkativeness, absolutely, lumin- 
ary, inevitable, &c. 

§ 140. A great number of words are distinguished by 
the difi'erence of accent alone. 

An dttrihute. To attribute. 

The month August. An august person. 

A com' pact. Compact (close). 



102 ON ACCENT. 

To con'jure (magically). Conjure (enjoin). 

Des'ert, wilderness. Desert, merit. 

Invalid, not valid. Invalid, a sickly persoa 

Minute, 60 seconds. Minute, smalL 

Supine, part of speech. Sxipine, careless, &c. 

§ 141. In ty^rant and presume, we deal with single 
words ; and in eacli word we determine wMcli syllable is 
accented. Contrasted with the sort of accent that follows, 
this may be called a verbal accent. 

In the line. 

Better for us, perhaps, it might appear, 

(Pope's " Essay on Man," i. 169.) 

the pronoun iis is strongly brought forward. An especial 
stress or emphasis is laid upon it, denoting that there are 
other beings to whom it might not appear, &c. This is 
collected from the context. Here there is a logical 
accent. " When one word in a sentence is distinguished 
by a stress, as more important than the rest, we may say 
that it is emphatical, or that an emphasis is laid upon 
it. When one syllable in a word is distinguished by a 
stress, and more audible than the rest, we say that it is 
accented, or that an accent is put upon it. Accent, there- 
fore, is to syllables what emphasis is to sentences ; it 
distinguishes one from the crowd, and brings it forward to 
observation." — Nares' " Orthoepy," part ii. chap. 1. 



OETHOGRAPHY 103 



CHAPTER YIII. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 



§ 142. Orthoepy, a word derived from tlie Greek 
orthon [upright], and epos {a word), signifies tlie right 
utterance of words. Orthoepy determines words, and 
deals with a language as it is spoken ; or thograp hi/ detev- 
mines the correct spelling of words, and deals with a 
language as it is written. This latter term is derived 
from the Greek words orthos [upright], and graphe, or 
grafce {writing). Orthography is less essential to lan- 
guage than orthoepy; since all languages are spoken, 
whilst but a few languages are written. Orthography 
presupposes orthoepy. Orthography addresses itself to 
the eye, orthoepy to the ear. Orthoepy deals with the 
articulate sounds that constitute syllables and words ; or- 
thography treats of the signs by which such articulate 
sounds are expressed in writing. A letter is the sign of an 
articulate (and, in the case of A, of an inarticulate) sound. 

§ 143. A full and perfect system of orthography con- 
sists in two things : — 1. The possession of a sufficient and 
consistent alphabet. 2. The right application of such an 
alphabet. This position may be illustrated more fully. 

§ 144. First, in respect to a sufficient and consistent 
alphabet — Let there be in a certain language, simple 
single articulate sounds, to the number of forty, whilst 
the simple single signs, or letters, expressive of them, 
amount to no more than thirty. In this case the alphabet 



104 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

is insufficient. It is not full enougli: since ten of tlie 
simple single articulate sounds have no corresponding 
signs whereby they may be expressed. In our own lan- 
guage, the sounds (amongst others) of th in thin^ and of th 
in tliine^ are simple and single, whilst there is no sign 
equally simple and single to spell them with. 

§ 145. An alphabet, however, may be sufficient, and 
yet imperfect. It may err on the score of inconsistency. 
Let there be in a given language two simple single 
sounds, (for instance) the j) in fate^ and' the f in fate. 
Let these sounds stand in a given relation to each other. 
Let a given sign, for instance, s (as is actually the case 
in Hebrew), stand for the _p in fate ; and let a second 
sign be required for the / in fate. Concerning the 
nature of this latter sign, two views may be taken. One 
framer of the alphabet, perceiving that the two sounds 
are mere modifications of each other, may argue that 
no new sign (or letter) is at all necessary, but that the 
sound of / in fate may be expressed by a mere modifica- 
tion of the sign (or letter) 5, and may be written thus 5, 
or thus s' or s', &c. ; upon the principle that like sounds 
should be expressed by like signs. The other framer 
of the alphabet, contemplating the difference between 
the two sounds, rather than the likeness, may propose, 
not a mere modification of the sign s, but a letter alto- 
gether new, such as /, or </>, &c., upon the principle that 
sounds of a given degree of dissimilitude should be 
expressed by signs of a different degree of dissimili- 
tude. 

Hitherto the expression of the sounds in point is 
a matter of convenience only. No question has been 
raised as to its consistency or inconsistency. This be- 
gins under conditions like the following : — Let there 
be in the language in point the sounds of the t in tin^ 



ORTHOGEAFHY. 105 

and of the th in thin; which (it may be remembered) 
are precisely in the same relation to each other as the p 
in pate and the/ in fate. Let each of these sounds have 
a sign or letter expressive of it. Upon the nature of 
these signs, or letters, will depend the nature of the sign 
or letter required for the /in fate. If the letter express- 
ing the th in thin be a mere modification of the letter ex- 
pressing the t in tin^ then must the letter expressive of 
the/in/a/e be a mere modification of the letter expressing 
the p in pate^ and vice versd. If this be not the case, the 
alphabet is inconsistent. 

In the English alphabet we have (amongst others) the 
following inconsistency : — The sound of the / in fate, in 
a certain relation to the sound of the p in pate, is ex 
pressed by a totally distinct sign ; whereas, the sound of 
the th in thin (similarly related to the t in ti7i) is expressed 
by no new sign, but by a mere modification of t; viz., th. 

§ 146. A third element in the faultiness of an alphabet 
is the fault of erroneous representation. The best illustra- 
tion of this we get from the Hebrew alphabet, where the 
sounds of n and 'o, mere varieties of each other, are re- 
presented by distinct and dissimilar signs, whilst n and 
n, sounds specifically/ distinct, are expressed by a mere 
modification of the same sign, or letter. 

§ 14T. The right application of an alphabet. — An 
alphabet may be both sufficient and consistent, accurate in 
its representation of the alliances between articulate 
sounds, and in no wise redundant ; and yet, withal, it may 
be so wrongly applied as to be defective. Of defect in the 
use or application of the letters of an alphabet, the three 
main causes are the following : — 

a. Unsteadiness in the power of letters. — Of this there 
are two kinds. In the first, there is one sound with two 
(or more) ways of expressing it. Such is the sound of 
6* 



106 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

the letter / in English. In words of Anglo-Saxon origin 
it is spelt with a single simple sign, as in Jill ; whilst in 
Greek words it is denoted by a combination, as in Philip. 
The reverse of this takes place with the letter g ; here a 
single sign has a double power ; in gibbet it is sounded as 
j, and in gibberish as g in got. 

b. The aim at secondary objects. — The natural aim of 
orthography, of spelling, or of writing, is to express the 
sounds of a language. Syllables and words it takes as 
they meet the ear, it translates them by appropriate signs, 
and so paints them, as it were, to the eye. That this is 
the natural and primary object is self-evident ; but beyond 
this natural and primary object there is, with the ortho- 
graphical systems of most languages, a secondary one, 
viz.^ the attempt to combine with the representation of the 
sound of a given word, the representation of its history 
and origin. 

The sound of the c, in city, is the sound that we na- 
turally spell with the letter 5, and if the expression of 
this sound was the only object of our orthographists, 
the word would be spelt accordingly {sity). The fol- 
lowing facts, however, traverse this simple view of the 
matter. The word is a derived word ; it is transplanted 
into our own language from the Latin, where it is spelt 
with a c (civitas) ; and to change this c into s conceals the 
origin and history of the word. For this reason the c 
is retained, although, as far as the mere expression of 
sounds (the primary object in orthography) is concerned, 
the letter is a superfluity. In cases like the one adduced 
the orthography is bent to a secondary end, and is tra- 
versed by the etymology. 

c. Obsoleteness. — It is very evident that modes of 
spelling which at one time may have been correct, may, 
by a change of pronunciation, become incorrect ; so that 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 107 

orthography becomes obsolete whenever there takes place 
a change of speech without a correspondent change of 
spelling. 

§ 148. From the foregoing sections we arrive at the 
theory of a full and perfect alphabet and orthography, 
of which a few (amongst many others) of the chief con- 
ditions are as follow : — 

1. That for every simple single sound, incapable of 
being represented by a combination of letters, there be a 
simple single sign. 

2. That sounds within a determined degree of like- 
ness be represented by signs within a determined degree 
of likeness ; whilst sounds beyond a certain degree of 
likeness be represented by distinct and different signs, and 
that uniformly. 

3. That no sound have more than one sign to express 
it. 

4. That no sign express more than one sound. 

5. That the primary aim of orthography be to express 
the sounds of words, and not their histories. 

6. That changes of speech be followed by correspond- 
ing changes of spelling. 

With these principles in our mind we may measure 
the imperfections of our own and of other alphabets. 

§ 149. Previous to considering the sufficiency or in- 
sufficiency of the English alphabet, it is necessary to 
enumerate the elementary articulate sounds of the lan- 
guage. The vowels belonging to the English language 
are the following twelve : — 



1. 


That of 


a ia father. 


n. 


That of e in bed. 


2. 


— 


a — fat. 


8. 


— 


i — pit. 


3. 


— 


a — fate. 


9. 


— 


ee—feet. 


4. 


— 


aw — hawl. 


10. 


— 


u — bull. 


5. 


— 


— not. 


11. 


— 


oo — fool. 


6. 


~ 


— note. 


12. 


— 


u — duck. 



108 



OBTHOGEAPHY. 



The diphthongal sounds are /owr. 



1. That of 

2. — 
8. — 
4. — 



ew 



house 
new. 
oil. 
bite. 



This last sound being most incorrectly expressed by 
the single letter i. 

The consonantal sounds are, 1. the t^o semivowels ; 
2. the four liquids ; 3. fourteen out of the sixteen mutes ; 
4. ch in chesfj and j in jest, compound sibilants ; 5. 7ig, 
as in king ; 6. the aspirate h. In all, twenty-four. 



l.w 


as ia 


wet. 


13. th 


as in 


thin. 


2-2^ 


— 


yet. 


U.th 


— 


thine. 


8. m 


— 


man. 


16. g 


— 


gun. 


4.n 


— 


not. 


IQ.h 


— 


hind. 


6.1 


— 


let. 


17.5 


— 


sin. 


6. r 


— 


run. 


18.2 


— 


zeal. 


l.p 


— 


pate. 


19. sA 


— 


shine. 


8.6 


— 


ban. 


20.2 


— azure, glazier. 


9-/ 


— 


fan. 


21. c^ 


— 


chest. 


10. V 


— 


van. 


22.i 


— 


jest. 


11. t 


— 


tin. 


2Z.ng 


— 


king. 


12. d 


— 


din. 


24. A 


— 


hot. 



§ 150. Some writers would add to these the addi- 
tional sound of the e ferme of the French ; believing 
that the vowel in words like their and vein has a. dif- 
ferent sound from the vowel in words like there and 
vain. For my own part I cannot detect such a differ- 
ence either in my own speech or that of my neigh- 
bours ; although I am far from denying that in certain 
dialects of our language such may have been the case. 
The following is an extract from the "Danish Grammar 
for Englishmen," by Professor Kask, whose eye, in the 
matter in question, seems to have misled his ear ; " The 



OIlTHOGRAPHr. 109 

ferme, or close e, is very frequent in Danish, but 
scarcely perceptible in English ; unless in such words as 
their, vein, veil, which appear to sound a little different 
from there, vain, vale.^^ 

§ 151. The vowels being twelve, the diphthongs four, 
and the consonantal sounds twenty-four, we have alto- 
gether as many as forty sounds, some being so closely 
allied to each other as to be mere modifications, and 
othei:3 being combinations rather than simple sounds ; 
all, however, agreeing in requiring to be expressed by 
letters or by combinations of letters, and to be distin- 
guished from each other. This enables us to appreciate — 
§ 152. The insufficiency of the English alphabet. — 

a. In respect to the vowels. — Notwithstanding the 
fact that the sounds of the a in father, fate, and fat, and 
of the and the aw in note, not, and bawl, are modifi- 
cations of a and o respectively, we have still six vowel 
sounds specifically distinct, for which {y being a conso- 
nant rather than a vowel) we have but five signs. The 
It in duck, specifically distinct from the u in bull, has no 
specifically distinct sign to represent it. 

b. In respect to the consonants. — The th in thin, the 
th in thijie, the sh in shine, the z in azure, and the ng in 
king^ five sounds specifically distinct, and five sounds 
perfectly simple require corresponding signs, which they 
have not. 

§ 153. Its inconsistency. — The / in fan, and the v in 
van, sounds in a certain degree of relationship to p and h, 
are expressed by sounds as unlike as / is unlike p, and 
as V is unlike b. The sound of the th in thin, the th in 
thine, the sh in shine, similarly related to t, d, and s, 
are expressed by signs as like t, d, and s, respectively, as 
th and sh. 

The compound sibilant sound of j in jest is spelt with 



110 OETHOGRAPHY. 

the single sign j, whilst the compound sibilant sound in 
chest is spelt with the combination ch. 

§ 154. Erroneousness. — The sound of the ee in feet 
is considered the long (independent) sound of the e in 
hed ; whereas it is the long (independent) sound of the 
i in pit. 

The i in bite is considered as the long (independent) 
sound of the i in pit ; whereas it is a diphthongal 
sound. 

The u in duck is looked upon as a modification of 
the u in bull; whereas it is a specifically distinct 
sound. 

The ou in house and the oi in oil are looked upon 
as the compounds of o and i and of o and u respect- 
ively ; whereas the latter element of them is not i and 
u, but y and w. 

The th in thin and the th in . thifie are dealt with as 
one and the same sound ; whereas they are sounds spe- 
cifically distinct. 

The ch in chest is dealt with as a modification of c 
(either with the power of k or of s) ; whereas its elements 
are t and sh. 

§ 155. Redundancy/. — As far as the representation of 
sounds is concerned the letter c is superfluous. In words 
like citizen it may be replaced by s; in words like cat 
by k. In ch, as in chest, it has no proper place. In ch, 
as in mechanical, is may be replaced by k. 

Q is superfluous, cw or kta being its equivalent. 

X also is superfiuouSj ks, gz, or z, being equivalent 
to it. 

The diphthongal forms ce and (b, as in JEneas and 
Croesus, except in the way of etymology, are superfluous 
and redundant. 

§ 156. Unsteadiness. — Here we have (amongst many 



ORTHOGEAPHY. Ill 

other examples), 1. The consonant c with the double 
power of s and k ; 2. g with its sound in gun and also 
with its sound in gin; 3. a; with its sounds in Alex- 
ander, apoplexy, Xejiophon. 

In the foregoing examples a single sign has a double 
power ; in the words Philip SiRdfilip, &c.; a single sound 
has a double sign. 

In respect to the degree wherein the English ortho- 
graphy is made subservient to etymology, it is sufficient 
to repeat the statement that as many as three letters 
c, ce, and ce are retained in the alphabet for etymological 
purposes only. 

§ 157. The defects noticed in the preceding sections 
are absolute defects, and would exist, as they do at 
present, were there no language in the world except the 
English. This is not the case with those that are now 
about to be noticed ; for them, indeed, the word defect 
is somewhat too strong a term. They may more properly 
be termed inconveniences. 

Compared with the languages of the rest of the world 
the use of many letters in the English alphabet is sin- 
gidar. The letter i (when long or independent) is, with 
the exception of England, generally sounded as ee. With 
Englishmen it has a diphthongal power. The incon- 
venience of this is the necessity that it imposes upon us, 
in studying foreign languages, of unlearning the sound 
which we give it in our own, and of learning the sound 
which it bears in the language studied. So it is (amongst 
many others) with the letter j. In English this has the 
sound of dzh, in Erench of zh, and in German of y. 
From singularity in the use of letters arises inconveni- 
ence in the study of foreign tongues. 

In using j as dzh there is a second objection. It is 
not only inconvenient, but it is theoretically incorrect. 



112 OETHOGEAPHT. 

The letter j was originally a modification of the vowel i. 
The Germans, who used it as the semivowel y, have per- 
verted it from its original power less than the English 
have done, who somid it dzh. 

With these views we may appreciate in the English 
alphabet and orthography — 

Its convenience or inconvenience in respect to learn- 
ing foreign tongues. — The sound given to the a in fate is 
singular. Other nations sound it as a in father. 

The sound given to the e, long (or independent), is 
singular. Other nations sound it either as a in fate, or 
as eferme. 

The sound given to the i in hite is singular. Other 
nations sound it as ee in feet. 

The sound given to the oo in fool is singular. Other 
nations sound it as the o in note, or as the 6 chiuso. 

The sound given to the u in duck is singular. Other 
nations sound it as the u in bull. 

The sound given to the on in house is singular. Other 
nations, more correctly, represent it by au or aw. 

The sound given to the w in wet is somewhat singular, 
but is also correct and convenient. With many nations it 
is not found at all, whilst with those where it occurs it has 
the sound (there or thereabouts) of v. 

The sound given to 1/ is somewhat singular. In 
Danish it has a vowel power. In German the semi- 
vowel sound is spelt with j. 

The sound given to z is not the sound which it has in 
German and Itahan , but its power in English is conve- 
nient and correct. 

The sound given to ch in chest is singular. In othei 
languages it has generally a guttural sound ; in French 
that of sh. The English usage is more correct than the 
French, but less correct than the German. 



ORTHOGKAPHY. 113 

The sound given toj (as said before) is singular. 

§ 158. The historical propriety/ or impropriety of 
certain letters. — The use of i with a diphthongal power 
is not only singular and inconvenient, but also historically 
incorrect. The Greek iota^ from "whence it originates, 
has the sound of i and ee, as in pit and/ee^. 

The y, sounded as in yet^ is historically incorrect. It 
grew out of the Greek v^ 2b vowel, and no semivowel. 
The Banes still use it as such, that is, with the power of 
the German iX. 

The use of 7 for dzh is historically incorrect. 

The use of c for k in words derived from the Greek as 
mechanical^ ascetic. &c., is historically incorrect. The 
form c is the representative of 7 and a and not of the 
Greek kappa. 

§ 159. On certain conventional modes of spelling. — 
In the Greek language the sounds of in not and of in 
note (although allied) are expressed by the unlike signs 
(or letters) and &), respectively. In most other lan- 
guages the difference between the sounds is considered 
too slight to require for its expression signs so distinct 
and dissimilar. In some languages the difference is 
neglected altogether. In many, however, it is ex- 
pressed, and that by some modification of the original 
letter. 

Let the sign ( " ) denote that the vowel over which it 
stands is long, or independent, whilst the sign ( ") 
indicates shortness, or dependence. In such a case, 
instead of writing not and nwt, like the Greeks, we may 
write n6t and not^ the sign serving for a fresh letter. 
Herein the expression of the nature of the sound is 
natural, because the natural use of ( ~ ) and ( " ) is to 
express length or shortness, dependence or independ- 
ence. Now, supposing the broad sound of to be 



114 ORTHOGEAPHY. 

already represented, it is very evident that, of the 
other two sounds of o, the one must be long (inde- 
pendent), and the other short (dependent) ; and as it is 
only necessary to express one of these conditions, we may, 
if we choose, use the sign ( ") alone; its presence de- 
noting length, and its absence shortness (independence or 
dependence). 

As signs of this kind, one mark is as good as another ; 
and instead of ( " ) we may, if we chose, substitute such a 
mark as ( ' ) and write n6t = not — nwt = note ; provided 
only that the sign ( ' ) expresses no other condition or 
affection of a sound. This use of the mark ( ' ), as a 
sign that the vowel over which it is placed is long (inde- 
pendent), is common in many languages. But is this 
use of (') natural? For a reason that the reader has 
anticipated, it is not natural, but conventional. Neither 
is it convenient. It is used elsewhere not as the sign 
of quantity ^ but as the sign of accent ; consequently, 
being placed over a letter, and being interpreted accord- 
ing to its natural meaning, it gives the idea, not that the 
syllable is long, but that it is emphatic or accented. Its 
use as a sign of quantity then, would be an ortho- 
graphical expedient, or an inconvenient conventional mode 
of spelling. 

The English language abounds in orthographical 
expedients ; the modes of expressing the quantity of the 
vowels being particularly numerous. To begin with 
these : — 

The reduplication of a vowel where there is but one 
syllable (as in feet^ cool), is an orthographical expedient. 
It merely means that the syllable is long (or inde- 
pendent). 

The juxtaposition of two different vowels, where 
there is but one syllable (as in plain, moan), is an 



OETHOGEAPHY. 115 

orthograpliical expedient. It generally means the same 
as the reduplication of a vowel, i. e., that the syllable is 
long (independent). 

The addition of the e mute, as in plane, whale ("what- 
ever may have been its origin), is, at present, but an or- 
thographical expedient. It denotes the lengthening of the 
syllable. 

The reduplication of the consonant after a vowel, as in 
spotted, torrent, is in most cases but an orthographical ex- 
pedient. It merely denotes that the preceding vowel is 
short (dependent). 

The use of ph for / in Philip, is an orthographical 
expedient, founded upon etymological reasons. 

The use of th for the simple sound of the first conso- 
nant in thin and thine, is an orthographical expedient. 
The combination must be dealt with as a single letter. 

Caution. — The letter a; and q are not orthographical 
expedients. They are orthographical compcndiums, x = 
^*5; and q=kw. 



116 HisTOEicAL sei:tch. 



CHAPTER IX. 

HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE ENGLISH ALPHABET. 

§ 160. The preceding chapter has exhibited the theory 
of a full and perfect alphabet ; it has shown how far the 
English alphabet falls short of such a standard ; and, 
above all, it has exhibited some of the conventional modes 
of spelling which the insufficiency of alphabets, combined 
with other causes, has engendered. The present chapter 
gives a history of our alphabet, whereby many of its 
defects are accounted for. These defects, it may be 
said, once for all, the English alphabet shares with those 
of the rest of the world ; although, with the doubtful ex- 
ception of the French, it possesses them in a higher de- 
gree than any. 

With few, if any exceptions, all the modes of writing 
in the ivorld originate^ directly or indirectly, from the 
Phoenician. 

At a certain period the alphabet' of Palestine, Phoeni- 
cia, and the neighboring languages of the Semitic tribes, 
consisted of twenty -two separate and distinct letters. 

Now the chances are, that, let a language possess as 
few elementary articulate sounds as possible, an alphabet 
of only twenty-two letters will be insufficient. 

Hence it may safely be asserted, that the original 
Semitic alphabet was insufficient for even the Semitic lan- 
guages. 

§ 161. In this state it was imported into Greece. 



OF ENGLISH ALPHABET. 



117 



Now, as it rarely happens tliat any two languages have 
precisely the same elementary articulate sounds, so it 
rarely happens that an alphabet can be transplanted from 
one tongue to another, and be found to suit. When such 
is the case, alterations are required. The extent to which 
these alterations are made at all, or (if made) made on a 
right principle varies with different languages." Some 
adapt an introduced alphabet well : others badly. 

Of the twenty-two Phoenician letters the Greeks took 
but twenty-one. The eighteenth letter, tsadi rs, was 
never imported into Europe. 

Compared with the Semitic, the Old Greek alphabet 
ran thus : — 





Hebrew. 


Greek. 




Eehre 


w, Greek. 


1. 


» 


A 


13. 


?a 


M. 


2. 


i 


B. 


14. 


5 


N. 


3. 


a. 


r. 


15. 


D 


2? 


4. 


1 


A. 


16. 


2J 


O. 


6. 


n 


E. 


lY. 


& 


n. 


6. 


1 


Digamma. 


18. 


S 


— 


7. 


T 


Z. 






A letter called 


8. 




H. 


19. 


P 


koppa, afterwards 


9. 


t2 


0. 






ejected 


10. 




I. 


20. 


^ 


P. 


IL 


5 


K. 


21. 


U3 


M afterwards 1\ 


12. 


b 


\ 


22. 


n 


T. 



The names of the letters were as follows : 



Hebrew. Greek. 

1. Alepb .... Alpha. 

2. Beth Bseta. 

3. Gimel .... Gamma. 

4. Daleth .... Delta. 

5. He E, psilon. 

6. Yaw Digamma. 





Hebrew. 


Greek 


1. 


Zayn . . 


. Z«ta, 


8. 


Heth. . 


. .Hffita. 


9. 


Teth . . 


. ThflRta, 


10. 


Yod . . 


. . Iota. 


11. 


Kaph . . 


. Kappa. 


12. 


Lamed . 


. . Lambda. 



118 



HISTOEICAL SKETCH. 



Eehrew. 


Greek. 


13. Mem . 


. Mu. 


14. Is'im . . 


. Nu. 


15. Samech 


. Sigma ? 


16. Ayn . . 


. 0. 


n. Pi. . . 


. PhL 



Hebrew. 


&reek. 


18. Tsadi 




19. Kof . 


. Ko-p-psi, Archaic* 


20. Resh 


. Rho. 


21. Sin . 


. San, Boric. 


22. Tau . 


.' Tau. 



The alphabet of Phoenicia and Palestine being adapted 
to the language of Greece, the first change took place in 
the manner of writing. The Phoenicians wrote from right 
to left ; the Greeks from left to right. Besides this, the 
following principles were recognised ; — 

a. Letters for which there was no use were left behind. 
This was the case, as seen above, with the eighteenth 
letter, tsadi. 

h. Letters expressive of sounds for which there was no 
precise equivalent in Greek, were used with other powers. 
This was the case with letters 5, 8, 16, and probably with 
some others. 

c. Letters of which the original sound, in the course 
of time, became changed, were allowed, as it were, to drop 
out of the alphabet. This was the case with 6 and 19. 

d. For such simple single elementary articulate sounds 
as there was no sign or letter representant, new signs, or 
letters, were invented. This principle gave to the Greek 
alphabet the new signs ^, %, f, co. 

e. The new signs were not mere modifications of the 
older ones, but totally new letters. 

All this was correct in principle; and the conse- 
quence is, that the Greek alphabet, although not originally 
meant to express a European tongue at all, expresses the 
Greek language well. 

§ 162. But it was not from the Greek that our own 
alphabet was immediately derived; although ultimately 



OF ENGLISH ALPHABET. 119 

it is referable to tlie same source as the Greek, viz., the 
Phoenician. 

It was the Roman alphabet which served as the basis 
to the English. 

And it is in the changes which the Phoenician alphabet 
underwent in being accommodated to the Latin language 
that we must investigate the chief peculiarities of the 
present alphabet and orthography of Great Britain and 
America. 

Now respecting the Roman alphabet, we must remem- 
ber that it was not taken directly from the Phoenician ; in 
this important point differing from the Greek. 

Nor yet was it taken, in the first instance, from the 
Greek. 

It had a double origin. 

The operation of the principles indicated in § 161 was 
a work of the time ; and hence the older and more unmod- 
ified Greek alphabet approached in character its Phoeni- 
cian prototype much more than the later, or modified. 
As may be seen, by comparing the previous alphabets 
with the common alphabets of the Greek Grammar, the 
letters 6 and 19 occur in the earlier, whilst they are 
missing in the later, modes of writing. On the other 
hand, the old alphabet has no such signs as ^, %, u, o), i/r, 
and ^. 

Such being the case, it is easy to imagine what would 
be the respective conditions of two Italian languages 
which borrowed those alphabets, the one from the earlier, 
the other from the later Greek. The former would con- 
tain the equivalents to vaw (6), and kof (19) ; but be des- 
titute of (/), %, (fee. ; whereas the latter would have <^, ;^, 
(fee, but be without either vaw or kof. 

Much the same would be the case with any single 



120 



HISTOEICAL SKETCH. 



Italian language wMcli took as its basis tlie earlier ^ but 
adopted, during tbe course of time, modifications from tbe. 
later Greek. It -would exbibit "witMn itself characters 
common to tbe twc stages. 

This, or something very like it, was the case with Ro- 
man. For the first two or three centuries the alphabet 
was Etruscan ; Etruscan derived directly from the Greek, 
and from the old Greek. 

Afterwards, however, the later Greek alphabet had its 
influence, and the additional letters which it contained 
were more or less incorporated ; and that without effect- 
ing the ejection of any earlier ones. 

§ 163. With these preliminaries we may investigate 
the details of the Roman alphabet, when we shall find 
that many of them stand in remarkable contrast with 
those of Greece and Phoenicia. At the same time where 
Shey differ with them, they agree with the English. 



Order. 


Roman. 


English. 


Greek. 


Hebrew. 


1. 


A 


A 


Alpha 


Aleph. 


2. 


B 


B 


Baeta 


Beth. 


3. 


C 


C 


Gamma 


GuneL 


4. 


D 


D 


Delta 


Daleth, 


5. 


E 


E 


Epsilon 


He. 


6. 


T 


F 


JDigamma 


Yav. 


7. 
8. 


G 
H 


G 
H 






Hffita 


Heth. 


9. 


I 


I 


Iota 


loA 


10. 


J 


J 


Iota 


led. 


11. 




K 


Kappa 


Kaf 


12. 


L 


L 


Lamda 


IJanied. 


13. 


M 


M 


Mu 


Mem. 


14 


IT 


N 


Nu 


Kun. 


15. 








Omicron 


Ayn. 


16. 


P 


P 


Pi 


Phi 


VI. 


Q 


Q 


Koppa 


Kof. 


18. 


H 


R 


Rho 


Resb. 



OF ENGLISH ALPHABET. 121 

Order. Roman. English. Greek. Hehreio. 



19. 


S 


s 


Sa7>. 


Sin. 


20. 


T 


T 


Tan 


Tau. 


2L 


U 


U 


Up?iloii 


— 


22. 


V 


V 


Upsilon 


— 


23. 




w 


Upsilon 


— 


24. 


X 


X 


Xi 


SauK 


25. 


Y 


Y 


Upsilon 


— 


26. 


Z 


Z 


Zeeta 


Zain. 



§ 164. The differences of this table are referable to 
one of the following four heads : — a. Ejection, k- Ad- 
dition, c. Change of power, d. Change of order. 

a. Ejection. — In the first instance, the Italians ejected 
as unnecessary, letters Tjt 9, and 11 : zayn {zceta), teth 
{thcBta)^ and kaf {kappa). Either the sounds which they 
expressed were wanting in their language ; or else they 
were expressed by some other letter. The former was 
T^robably the case with 7 and 9, zceta and thceta, the latter 
with 11, kappa. 

h. Addition. — Out of the Greek iota, two ; out of the 
Greek upsilon, four modifications have been evolved ; viz., 
i and J out of i, and ii, v, w, y, out of v. 

c. Change of power. — ^Letter 3, in Greek and Hebrew 
had the sound of the g in gun; in Latin that of k. 
The reason for this lies in the structure of the Etruscan 
language. In that tongue the flat sounds were remark- 
ably deficient; indeed, it is probable, that that of g 
was wanting. Its sharp equivalent, however, the sound 
of k, was by no means wanting ; and the Greek gamma 
was used to denote it. This made the equivalent to k, 
the third letter of the alphabet, as early as the time of the 
jStruscans. 

But the Romans had both sounds, the flat as well as 

* As a name, Sigma=Samech. 
f Of the Hebrew and Greek tables. 

7 



122 HISTOEICAL SKETCH 

the sharp^ g as well as k. How did tliey express theml 
Up to the second Punic "War they made the rounded 
form of the Greek P, out of which the letter C has arisen, 
do double work, and signify k and g equally, just as 
in the present English th is sounded as the Greek ^,* 
and as dh ;t in proof whereof we have in the Duillian 

column, ]\IACESTIlATOS = MAGISTRATOS. and CARTHACI- 
NIENSES = CARTHAGINIEXSES. 

Thus much concerning the power and places of the 
Latin q^ as opposed to the Greek <y. But this is not all. 
The use of gamma, with the power of k^ made kappa 
superfluous, and accounts for its ejection in the Etruscan 
alphabet ; a fact already noticed. 

Furthermore, an addition to the Etruscan alphabet 
was recjuired by the existence of the sound of g, in Latin, 
as soon as the inconvenience of using c with a double 
power became manifest. What took place then? Even 
this. The third letter was modified in form, or became a 
new letter, c being altered into g ; and the new letter took 
its place in the alphabet. 

Where was this? As the seventh letter between/ 
{diga?nma) and h (JicEta). 

Why? Because it was there where there was a 
vacancy, and where it replaced the Greek zceta, or the 
Hebrew zayn, a letter which, at that time, was not 
wanted in Latin. 

d. Change of order. — As far as the letters c and g 
are concerned, this has been explained ; and it has been 
shown that change of order and change of power are 
sometimes very closely connected. All that now need 
be added is, that those letters which were last introduced 
from the Greek into the Eoman alphabet, were placed at 
the end. 

* In thin. \ In thine. 



OF ENGLISH ALPHABET. 123 

This is Tvliy u^ v, w, and 7/ come after t — the last 
letter of the original Phoenicianj and also of the older 
Greek. 

This, too, is the reason for z coming last of all. It 
was restored for the purpose of spelling Greek words. 
But as its original place had been filled up by g, it was 
tacked on as an appendage, rather than incorporated as an 
element. 

X in power, coincided with the Greek xi ; in place, 
with the Greek khi. Its position seems to have deter- 
mined its form, which is certainly that of X rather than 
of H. The full investigation of this is too lengthy for the 
present work. 

§ 165. It should be observed, that, in the Latin, the 
letters have no longer any names (like beth, hceta), except 
such as are derived from their powers Qye, ce). 

§ 166. The principles which determined the form of 
the Romxan alphabet were, upon the whole, correct ; and, 
hence, the Roman alphabet, although not originally meant 
to express an Italian tongue at all, expressed the language 
to which it was applied tolerably. 

On the other hand, there were both omissions and 
alterations which have had a detrimental effect upon the 
orthography of those other numerous tongues to which 
Latin has supplied the alphabet. Thus — 

a. It is a matter of regret, that the differences which 
the Greeks drew between the so-called long and short e 
and 0, was neglected by the Latins ; in other words, that 
ft) was omitted entirely, and 77 changed in power. Had 
this been the case, all the orthographical expedients by 
which we have to express the difference between the in 
not, and the in note, would have been prevented — not, 
note, moat — bed, bead, heel, glede, &c. 

b. It is a matter of regret, that such an unnecessary 



124 HISTORICAL SKETCH 

compendium as q = cu, or cw^ should liave been retained 
from the old Greek alphabet ; and, still more so, that 
the equally superfluous x = C5, or ks^ should have .been re- 
admitted. 

c. It is a matter of regret, that the Greek ^ was not 
treated like the Greek f. Neither were wanted at first ; 
both afterwards. The manner, however, of their sub- 
sequent introduction was different. Zceta came in as a 
simple single letter, significant of a simple single sound. 
Thceta, on the contrary, although expressive of an equally 
simple sound, became th. This was a combination rather 
than a letter ; and the error which it engendered was 
great. 

It suggested the idea, that a simple sound was a com- 
pound one — which was wrong. 

It further suggested the idea, that the sound of ^ 
differed from that of r, by the addition of h — which was 
wrong also. 

§ 167. The Greek language had a system of sounds 
different from the Phoenician ; and the alphabet required 
modifying accordingly. 

The Roman language had a system of sounds different 
from the Greek and the alphabet required modifying 
accordingly. 

This leads us to certain questions concerning the 
Anglo-Saxon. Had it a system of sounds different from 
the Roman ? If so, what modifications did the alphabet 
require ? Were such modifications effected ? If so, how ? 
Sufficiently or insufficiently ? The answers are unsatis- 
factory. 

§ 168. The Anglo-Saxon had, even in its earliest 
stage, the following sounds, for which the Latin alphabet 
bad no equivalent signs or letters — 

1, The sound of the th in thin. 



OF ENGLISH ALPHABET. 125 

2. The sound of the th in thine. 

It had certainly these : probably others. 

§ 169. Expressive of these, two new signs were intro- 
duced, viz.^ '^ = thin thin J and ^ = th in thine. 

W, also evolved out of :/, was either an original im 
provement of the Anglo-Saxon orthographists, or a mode 
of expression borrowed from one of the allied languages 
of the Continent. Probably the latter was the case ; 
since we find the following passage in the Latin dedication 
of Otfrid's " Krist :" — " Hujus enim linguae barbaries, 
ut est inculca et indisciplinabilis, atque insueta capi regu- 
lari freno grammatic9B artis, sic etiam in multis dictis 
scriptu est difficilis propter literarum aut congeriem, aut 
incognitam sonoritatem. Nam interdum tria u u u ut 
puto quserit in sono ; priores duo coasonantes, ut mihi 
videtur, tertium vocali sono manente." 

This was, as far as it went, correct, so that the Anglo- 
Saxon alphabet, although not originally meant to express 
a Gothic tongue at all, answered the purpose to which it 
was applied tolerably. 

§ ITO. Change, however, went on ; and the ortho- 
graphy which suited the earlier Anglo-Saxon would not 
suit the later ; at any rate, it would not suit the language 
which had become or was becoming, English ; wherein 
the sounds for which the Latin alphabet had no equivalent 
signs increase. Thus there is at present — 

1. The sound of the sh in shine. 

2. The sound of the z in azure. 

How are these to be expressed ? The rule bag hitherto 
been to denote simple single sounds, by simple single 
signs, and where such signs have no existence alre^-dy, to 
originate new ones. 

To combine existing letters^ rather than to coin a new 
one, has only been done rarely. The Latin substitution 



126 HISTORICAL SKETCH. 

of the combination th for tlie simple single ^j was ex- 
ceptionable. It was a precedent, however, wbicli now 
begins to be followed generally. 

§ 171. It is this precedent wbicb accounts for the 
absence of any letter in English, expressive of either of 
the sounds in question. 

§ 172. Furthermore, our alphabet has not only not 
increased in proportion to our sound-system, but it has 
decreased. The Anglo-Saxon p = the th in thiii^ and ^ 
= the th in thine^ have become obsolete ; and a difference 
in pronunciation, which our ancestors expressed, we over- 
look. 

The same precedent is at the bottom of this ; a fact 
which leads us to — 

§ 173. The Anglo-Norman alphabet. — The Anglo- 
Saxon language was Gothic ; the alphabet, Roman. 

The Anglo-Norman language was Roman ; the alpha- 
bet, Roman also. 

The Anglo-Saxon took his speech from one source ; 
his writing from another. 

The Anglo-Norman took both from the same. 

In adapting a Latin alphabet to a Gothic language, 
the Anglo-Saxon allowed himself more latitude than the 
Anglo-Norman. We have seen that the new signs ]> and 
^ were Anglo-Saxon. 

Now the sounds which these letters represent did not 
occur in the Norman-French, consequently the Norman- 
French alphabet neither had nor needed to have signs to 
express them ; until after the battle of Hastings, when 
it became the Anglo- Nor ma7i of England. 

Then, the case became altered. The English lan- 
guage influenced the Norman orthography, and the 
Norman orthography the English language ; and the 
result was, that the simple single correct and distinctive 



OF ENGLISH ALPHABET. 127 

signs of the Anglo-Saxon alphabet, became replaced by 
the incorrect and indistinct combination th. 

This Tvas a loss, both in the way of theoretical cor- 
rectness and perspicuity. 

Such is the general view of the additions, ejections, 
changes of power, and changes of order in the English 
alphabet. The extent, however, to which an alphabet 
is faulty, is no measure of the extent to which an ortho- 
graphy is faulty ; since an insufficient alphabet may, by 
consistency in its application, be more useful than a full 
and perfect alphabet unsteadily applied. 

§ 174. One of our orthographical expedients, viz.^ the 
reduplication of the consonant following, to express the 
shortness (dependence) of the preceding vowel, is as old 
as the classical languages : terra, '^aXaaaa. Neverthe- 
less, the following extract from the " Ormulum " (written 
in the thirteenth century) is the fullest recognition of the 
practice that I have met with. 

And "whase wilenu shall- })is hoc, 

Efft o}»err si}>e writenn, 
Himm bidde ice }»att hett -wiite rihlit, 

Swa sum Jiiss boc himm taechej))) ; 
All ]?werrt utt affterr Jjatt itt iss 

Opp: J»iss firrste bisne, 
WiJ>]7 all swilc rime als her iss sett, 

Wi]?]? alse fele -wordess : 
And tatt he loke "well })att he 

An hoc-staff write twiggess'-' 
Eggwhaer Jiser itt uppo J* iss boc 

Iss -writenn o }»att Avise : 
Loke he well ])att hett -write s-wa, . 

Forr he ne magg noht elless, 
On Englissh -writenn rihbt te -word, 

]?att -wite he -well to so]?e. 



* "Write one letter tmce. 



128 



HISTOEICAL SKETCH 



§ 175. The order of the alphabet. — In the history of 
our alphabet, we have had the history of certain changes 
in the arrangement, as T^ell as of the changes in the 
number and power of its letters. The following question 
now presents itself: viz.^ Is there in the order of the 
letters any natural arrangement, or is the original as 
well as the present succession of letters arbitrary and 
accidental ? The following facts suggest an answer in the 
affirmative. 

The order of the Hebrew alphabet is as follows : — 





Name. 


Sound. 




Name. 


Sound. 


1. 


Aleph . 


( Either a vo^el 
' ( or a breathing. 


12. 


Lamed . . 


. L. 


13. 


Mem . . . 


. M. 


2. 


Beth . . 


. B. 


14. 


Nun . . . 


. K 


3. 


Gimel . 


. G, as in gun. 


15. 


Samech . 


. a variety of S. 


4. 
5. 


Daleth . 
He . . . 


j Either a vowel 
i or an aspirate. 


16. 


Ayn . . . 


Either a vowel 
' 'or—? 


lY. 


Pe . . . 


. P. 


6. 


Vaw . . 


. Y. 


18. 


Tsadi . . . 


. TS. 


1. 


Zayn . . 


. Z. 


19. 


Kof. . . . 


. a variety of K. 


8. 


Kheth . 


. a yariety of K. 


20. 


Resh . . . 


. R. 


9. 


Teth . . 


. a variety of T. 


21. 


Sin . . . , 


. S. 


0. 


Tod . . 


. I. 


22. 


Tau . . . 


. T. 


1. 


Caph. . . 


. K. 









Let beth, vaiu, and ^^e {b, v, p) constitute a series 
called series P. Let gimsl, kheth, and kof {g, kh, k') 
constitute a series called series K. Let daleth, teth, and 
tau, {d, f, t) constitute a series called series T. Let 
aleph, he, and a7/Ji constitute a series called the vowel 
series. Let the first four letters be taken in their order. 



1. Aleph of the vowel series. 

2. £eth of series P. 

3. Gvnel of series K 

4. Daleth of series T. 



OF ENGLISH ALPHABET. 129 

Herein the consonant of series B comes next to the 
letter of the vowel series ; that of series K follows ; and 
in the last place, comes the letter of series T. After this 
the order changes ; daleth being followed by he of th^ 
vowel series. 

6. He of the vowel series. 

6. Vaw of series P. 

7. Zayn 

8. Kheth of series K 

9. Teth of series T. 

In this second sequence the relative positions of v, M, 
and t\ are the same in respect to each other, and the 
same in respect to the vowel series. The sequence itself 
is broken by the letter zayn^ but it is remarkable that the 
principle of the sequence is the same. Series P follows 
the vowel, and series T is farthest from it. After this the 
system becomes but fragmentary. Still, even now, pe, of 
series P, follows ayn; tau, of series T, is farthest from 
it, and kof^ of series K, is intermediate. 

If this be the case, and, if the letters, so to say, cir- 
culate, the alterations made in their order during the 
transfer of their alphabet from Greece to Rome, have 
had the unsatisfactory effect of concealing an interesting 
arrangement, and of converting a real, though some- 
what complex regularity, into apparent hazard and dis- 
order. 



130 QUESTIONS. 



QUESTIOlS^S. 

1. Explain the terms sharp, explosive, true aspirate, apparent aspirate, 
broad, dependent. 

2. Exhibit the difference between the quantity of syllables and the 
quantity of vowels. 

3. Accentuate the following words, — attribute {adjective), survey 
Cverb), August {the month). 

4. Under what conditions is the sound of consonants doubled ? 

5. Exhibit, in a tabular form, the relations of the a) mutes, b) the 
vowels, underlining those which do not occur in English. 

6. What is the power of ph in Philip ? what in haphazard? Illus- 
ti-ate the difference fully. 

7. Investigate the changes by which the words picture, nature, 
derived from the Latin pictura and natura, are sounded pictshur and 
natshur. 

8. How do you sound the combination apd? Why? 

9. In what points is the English alphabet insufficient, redundant, and 
inconsistent ? 

10. Why is z {zcefa), which is the sixth letter in the Greek, the last in 
the English alphabet ? 



PART IV. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



CHAPTER I, 

ON THE PROVINCE OF ETYMOLOGY. 

§ 175. The word et3niiology, derived from the Greek, 
in the current language of scliolars and grammarianSj has 
a double meaning. At times it is used in a wide, and at 
times in a restricted sense. 

If in the English language we take such a word as 
fathers^ we are enabled to divide it into two parts ; in 
other words, to reduce it into two elements. By com- 
paring it with the word father^ we see that the s is 
neither part nor parcel of the original word. Hence 
the word is capable of being analysed; father being 
the original primitive word, and s the secondary super- 
added termination. From the word father, the word 
fathers is derived^ or (changing the expression) deduced, 
or descended. What has been said of the word fathers 
may also be said of fatherly , fatherlike, fatherless, (fee. 
Now, from the word father, all these words {fathers, 
fatherly, fatherlike, and fatherless) differ in form and in 
meaning. To become such a word as fathers, (fee, the 



132 PEOVINCE OF ETYMOLOGY. 

Tvord father is changed. Of changes of this sort, it is 
the province of etymology to take cognizance. 

§ 1T7. Compared -with the form fathers^ the word 
father is the older form of the two. The word father 
is a word current in this the nineteenth century. The 
same word is found much earlier, under different forms, 
and in different languages. Thus, in the Latin Ian 
guage, the form was pater; in Greek, rrrarrjp. Now, 
-ss-ith. father smd. fathers, the change takes place within the 
same language, whilst the change that takes place between 
pater and father takes place within different languages. 
Of changes of this latter kind it is, also, the province of 
etymology to take cognizance. 

§ 178. In its widest signification, etymology takes 
cognizance of the changes of the forin of words. How- 
ever, as the etymology that compares the forms fathers 
and father is different from the etymology that compares 
father and pater, we have, of etymology, two sorts : 
one dealinor with the chancres of form that words un- 
dergo in one and the same language {father, fathers), the 
other dealing with the changes that words undergo in 
passing from one language to another {pater, fathei ). 

The first of these sorts may he called etymology in 
the limited sense of the word, or the etymology of the 
grammarian. In this case it is opposed to orthoepy, 
orthography, syntax, and the other parts of grammar. 
This is the etymology of the ensuing pages. 

The second may be called etymology in the wide 
sense of the word, historical etymology, or comparative 
etymology. 

§ 1T9. It must be again repeated that the two sorts 
of etymology agree in one point, viz., in taking cog- 
nizance of the changes of forms that words undergo. 
Whether the change arise from grammatical reasons, as 



TEOVINCE OF ETYMOLOGY. 133 

father^ fathers^ or from a change of language taking 
place in the lapse of time, as pater, father, is a matter of 
indifference. 

In the Latin pa^er, and in the English /a^Ae/*, we have 
one of two things, either two words descended or derived 
from each other, or two words descended or derived from 
a common original source. 

In fathers we have a formation deduced from the 
radical ^vord father. 

With these preliminaries we may understand Dr. 
Johnson's explanation of the word etymology. 

" Etymology, n. s. {etymologia, Lat.) €tvjjlo<; {etymos) 
true, and \6yo<; (logos) a word. 

" 1. The descent or derivation of a word from its 
original ; the deductiori of formations from the radical 
word ; the analysis of compounds into primitives. 

" 2. The part of grammar which delivers the inflec- 
tions of nouns and verbs" 



184: 



OK aENDER. 



CHAPTER II. 



ON GENDER. 

§ 180. How far is there such a thing as gender in the 
English language ? This depends upon the meaning that 
we attach to the wcrd. 

In the Latin language we have the words taurus = 
bully and vacca = cow. Here the natural distinction of 
sex is expressed by wholly different words. With this 
we have corresponding modes of expression in English : 



Male. 


Female. 


Hale. 


Female. 


Bachelor 


Spinster. 


Horse 


Mare. 


Boar 


So^7. 


Ram 


Ewe. 


Boy 


GirL 


Son 


Daughter. 


Brother 


Sister. 


Uncle 


Aunt 


Buck 


Doe. 


Father 


Mother, &c. 



The mode, however, of expressing different sexes by 
wholly different words is not a matter of gender. The 
words boy and girl bear no etymological relation to each 
other ; neither being derived from the other, nor in any 
way connected with it. 

§ 181. Neither are words like cock-sparrow, man- 
servant, he-goat, &c., as compared with hen-sparrow, 
maid-servant, she-goat, &c., specimens of gender. Here 
a difference of sex is indicated by the addition of a fresh 
term, from which is formed a compound word. 

§ 182. In the Latin words genitrix = a mother, and 



ON GENDER. 



135 



geniior = a father ^ we have a nearer approacli to gender. 
Here the difference of sex is expressed by a difference 
of termination ; the words genitor and genitrix being in 
a true etymological relation, i. e., either derived from 
each other, or from some common source. With this 
we have, in English corresponding modes of expression : 
e.g. 



Male. 


Female. 


Actor 


Actress. 


Arbiter 


Arbitress. 


Baron 


Baroness. 


Benefactor 


Benefactress. 


Count 


Countess. 


Bute 


Duchess. 



Male. 

Lion 

Peer 

Poet 

Sorcerer 

Songster 

Tiger 



Female. 
Lioness. 



Poetess. 
Sorceress. 
Songstress. 
Tigress. 



§ 183. This, however, in strict grammatical lan- 
guage, is aji approach to gender rather than gender 
itself; the difference from true grammatical gender being 
as follows : — 

Let the Latin words genitor and genitrix be de- 
clined : — 



Sing. Norn. Genitor 

Gen. Genitor-is 

Dat. Genitor-j 

Ace. Genitor-(?m 

Voc. Genitor 

Phir. Norn. Genitor-es 

Gen. Genitor-?im 

Dat. Genitor-z^MS 

Ace. Genitor-c5 

Voc. Genitor-es 



Genitrix 

Genitric-i5. 

Geuitric-i. 

Genitric-e/n. 

Genitrix. 

Genitric-es. 

Genitric-Mjn. 

Genitric-25w5. 

Genitric-«,<f. 

Genitric-(?s. 



The syllables in italics are the signs of the cases and 
numbers. Now these signs are the same in each word, 
the difference of meaning (or sex) not affecting them. 

§ 184. Contrast, however, with the words genitor 



136 ON GENDEE. 

and genitrix tlie words domina = a mistress, and domi 
nus = a master. 

Sing. Norn. Domin-a Domm-M». 

Gen. Domin-05 Domin-i. 

Dat. Domin-oB Domin-o. 

Ace. Domin-am Domin-Mm. 

Voc. Domin-a Domin-e. 

Plur.Nom. Domin-ce Domin-j. 

Gen. jyomm-arum 'Dowm-orunu 

Dat. 'Dovam-ahus Domin-is. 

Ace. Domin-as Domin-os. 

Voc. Domin-(^ Domin-i. 

Here tlie letters in italics, or the signs of tlie ^ati^es 
and numbers., are different; the difference being bi ought 
about by the difference of gender. Now it is very evi- 
dent that, if genitrix be a specimen of gender, domina is 
something more. 

§ 185. It may be laid down as a sort of definition, 
that there is no gender where there is no affection of the 
declension: consequently, that, although we have, in 
English, words corresponding to genitrix and genitor, 
we have no true genders until we find words corresponding 
to domiiius and domina, 

§ 186. The second element in the notion of gender, 
although I will not venture to call it an essential one, is 
the following: — ^In the words domina and dominus, 
mistress and master, there is a natural distinction of sex ; 
the one being masculine, or male, the other feminine, or 
female. In the words sword and lance there is no 
natural distinction of sex. Notwithstanding this, the 
word hasta, in Latin, is as much of the feminine gender 
as domina, whilst gladius == a sword is, like dominus, a 
masculine noun. From this we see that, in languages 
wherein there are true genders, a fictitious or conven- 



ON GENDER. 137 

tional sex is attributed even to inanimate objects ; ic 
other words, sex is a natural distinction, gender a gram- 
matical one. 

§ 187. In § 185 it is written, that " although we 
have, in English, words corresponding to genitrix and 
genitor, we have no true genders until we find luords 
corresponding to dominus and dominaJ^ — The sentence 
was intentionally worded with caution. Words like 
dominus and domina, that is, words where the declen- 
sion is affected by the sex, are to be found even in 
English. 

The pronoun him, from the Anglo-Saxon and English 
he, as compared with the pronoun Aer, from the Anglo- 
Saxon Aeo, is affected in its declension by the difference 
of sex, and is a true, though fragmentary, specimen of 
gender. The same is the case with the form his as com- 
pared with her. 

The pronoun it (originally hit), as compared with he, 
is a specimen of gender. 

The relative what, as compared with the masculine 
who, is a specimen of gender. 

The forms it (for hit) and he are as much genders as 
hoc and hie, and the forms hoc and hie are as much genders 
as honum and bonus. 

§ 188. The formation of the neuter gender by the 
addition of -t, in words like wha-t, i-t, and tha-t, occurs 
in other languages. The -t in tha-t is the -d in istu-d, 
Latin, and the -t in ta-t, Sanskrit. 

§ 189. In the Moeso-Gothic and Scandinavian, the 
adjectives form the neuters in -t, in Old High German in 
'Z its), and in Modern German in -5 (derived from -z) — 
Moeso-Gothic, hlind-ata ; Icel., hlind-t ; Old High Ger- 
man, plint-ez, M. G. hlind-es = ccec-um. 

Caution. — Which, is not the neuter of who. 



138 ON GENDER. 

§ 190. Just as there are in English fragments of a 
gender modifying the declension, so are there, also, 
fragments of the second elemeat of gender ; viz., the 
attribution of sex to objects naturally destitute of it. 
TJie sun in his glory, the moon iii her wane, are ex- 
amples of this. A sailor calls his ship she. A husband- 
man, according to Mr. Cobbett, does the same with his 
plough and working implements : — " In speaking of a 
ship we say she and her. And you know that our 
country-folks in Hampshire call almost every thing he or 
she. It is curious to observe that country labourers 
give the feminine appellation to those things only which 
are more closely identified with themselves, and by the 
qualities or conditions of which their own efforts, and 
their character as workmen, are affected. The mower 
calls his scythe a she, the ploughman calls his plough a 
she ; but a prong, or a shovel, or a harrow, which passes 
promiscuously from hand to hand, and which is appro- 
priated to no particular labourer, is called a Ae."— 
" Enghsh Grammar," Letter v. 

§ 191. Now, although Mr. Cobbett's statements may 
account for a sailor calling his ship she, they will not ac- 
count for the custom of giving to the sun a masculine, 
and to the moon a feminine, pronoun, as is done in the 
expressions quoted in the last section ; still less will it 
account for the circumstance of the Germans reversing 
the gender, and making the sun feminine, and the moon 
masculine. 

§ 192. Let there be a period in the history of a language 
wherein the sun and m^oon are dealt with, not as inani- 
mate masses of matter, but as animated divinities. Let 
therCj VL other words, be a time when dead things are 
personified, and when there is a mythology. Let an 
object like the sun be deemed a m^ale, and an object like 



ON GENDER. 139 

the moon, a female, deity. "We may tlien understand tlie 
origin of certain genders. 

The Germans say the sun in her glory; the moon in 
his wane. This difference between the usage of the two 
languages, like so many others, is explained by the influ- 
ence of the classical languages upon the English. — 
" Mundilfori had two children ; a son, Mdni {Moon), 
and a daughter, Sol {Smi)P — Such is an extract out of 
an Icelandic mythological work, 'Hz., the prose Edda. In 
the classical languages, however, Phoebus and Sol are 
masculine, and Luna and Diana feminine. Hence it is 
that, although in Anglo-Saxon and Old-Saxon the sun is 
feminine, it is in English masculine. 

Philosophy, charity, &c., or the names of abstract 
qualities personified, take a conventional sex, and are fem- 
inine from their being feminine in Latin. 

As in all these words there is no change of form, the 
consideration of them is a point of rhetoric, rather than of 
etymology. 

§ 193. The remainder of this chapter is devoted to 
miscellaneous remarks upon the true and apparent gen- 
ders of the English language. 

1. With the false genders like baron, baroness, it is a 
general rule that the feminine form is derived from the 
masculine, and not the masculine from the feminine ; as 
peer, peeress. The words widower, gander, and drake 
are exceptions. Eor the word loizard, from witch, see the 
section on augmentative forms. 

2. The termination -ess, in which so large a portion of 
our feminine substantives terminate, is not of Saxon but 
of classical origin, being derived from the termination -ix, 
genitrix. 

3. The words shepherdess, huntress, and hostess are 
faulty ; the radical part of the word being Germanic, and 



140 OK GENDER. 

the secondary part classical: indeedj in strict English 
Grammar, the termination -ess has no place at all. It is 
a classic, not a Gothic, element. 

4. The termination -inn, is current in German, as the 
equivalent to -ess, and as a feminine affix {freund = a 
friend; freimdinn=a female friend). In English it 
occurs only in a fragmentary form ; — e. g., in vixen, a 
true feminine derivative from fox =fuc]isinn, German. 

Bruin = the hear, may be either a female form, as in 
Old High German jjero »= a he-hear, jpirinn = a she-hear ; 
or it may be the Norse form hjorn = a hear, male or 
female. 

Caution. — Words like 7nargravine and landgravine 
prove nothing, being scarcely naturalised. 

5. The termination -sir, as in wehster, songster, and 
Baxter, was originally a feminine affix. Thus, in Anglo- 
Saxon, 



Sangere, a male singer 
Bacere, a male baker 
FiSelere, a male fiddler 
Yebbere, a male weaver 
Rsedere, a male reader 
Seamere, a male ^earner 



, were oppo- , 
sed to 



Sangestre, a female singer. 
Bacestre, a female haker. 
FiSelstre, a female fiddler. 
Vebbestre, a female weaver. 
Rsedestre, a female reader. 
^ Seamestre, a female seamer. 



The same is the case in the present Dutch of Holland : 
e.g., spookster = a female fortune-teller; haxster— a 
haking-woman ; waschster =»= a washerwoman. The vrord 
spinster still retains its original feminine force. 

6. The words songstress and seamstress, besides 
being, as far as concerns the intermixture of languages, in 
the predicament of shepherdess, have, moreover, a double 
feminine termination ; 1st. -str, of Germanic, 2nd. -ess, of 
classical, origin. 

T. In the word heroine we have a Greek termination, 
just as 'ix is a Latin, and -inn a German one. It must 



ON GENDER. 141 

not, however, be considered as derived from Aero, by any 
process of tlie English language, but be dealt with as a 
separate importation from the Greek language. 

8. The form deaconness is not wholly unexceptionable ; 
since the termination -ess is of Latin, the root deacon of 
Greek origin : this Greek origin being rendered all the 
more conspicuous by the spelling, deacon (from diaco?ios), 
as compared with the Latin deca?ius. 

9. Goose, gander. — One peculiarity in this pair of 
words has already been indicated. Li the older forms of 
the word goose, such as xv^^ Greek ; anser, Latin ; gans, 
German, as well as in the derived form gander, we have 
the proofs that, originally, there belonged to the word the 
sound of the letter 7i. In the forms 6Bov<i, ohovro^, Greek ; 
dens, dentis, Latin ; zalin, German ; tooth, English, we 
find the analogy that accounts for the ejection of the w, 
and the lengthening of the vowel preceding. With re- 
spect, however, to the d in gander, it is not easy to say 
whether it is inserted in one word or omitted in the other. 
Neither can we give the precise power of the -er. The 
following forms occur in the different Gothic dialects. 
Gans, fem. ; ganazzo, masc. Old High German — gos, 
f ; gandra, m., Anglo-Saxon — gets, Icelandic, f ; gaas, 
Danish, f ; gassi, Icelandic, m. ; gasse, Danish, m. — 
ganser, ganserer, gansart, gmiserich, gander, masculine 
forms in different New German dialects. 

10. Observe, the form gdnserich, has a masculine 
termination. The word tduherich, in provincial New Ger- 
man, has the same form and the same power. It denotes 
a male dove ; taube, in German, signifying a dove. In 
gunserich and tduberich, we find preserved the termina- 
tion -7^ich (or 7Hk), with a masculine power. Of this ter- 
mination we have a remnant, in English, preserved in the 
curious word drake. To duck the word drake has no ety- 



142 ON GEKDER. 

mological relation whatsoever. It is derived from a word 
witli wMcli it has but one letter in common ; viz., tlie 
Latin anas = a duck. Of this the root is a7iat-, as seen 
in the genitive case anatis. In Old High German we 
find the form anetrekho = a drake ; in provincial New High 
German there is enterich and antrecht, from whence come 
the English and Low German form, drake. 

11. Peacock, peahen.— In these compounds, it is not 
the word pea that is rendered masculine or fsminine by 
the addition of cock and hen, but it is the words cock and 
hen that are modified by prefixing jpea. 



THE NUMBERS. 143 



CHAPTER III. 



THE NUMBERS. 



§ 194. In the Greek language the word patcer signifies 
^ father^ denoting owe, wliilst _pa^ere signifies two fathers^ 
denoting a pair, and thirdly, pateres signifies fathers^ 
speaking of any number beyond two. The three words, 
patcer, patere^ and pateres, are said to be in different 
numbers, the difference of meaning being expressed by a 
difference of form. These numbers have names. The 
number that speaks of one is the singular, the number 
that speaks of two is the dual (from the Latin word duo 
= two), and the number that speaks of inore than two is 
the plural. 

All languages have numbers, but all languages have 
not them to the same extent. The Hebrew has a dual, 
but it is restricted to nouns only. It has, moreover, this 
peculiarity ; it applies, for the most part, only to things 
which are naturally double, as the two eyes, the tiuo hands, 
&c. The Latin has no dual number, except the natural 
one in the words amho and duo. 

§ 195. The question presents itself, — to what extent 
have we numbers in English ? Like the Greek, Hebrew, 
and Latin, we have a singular and a plural. Like the 
Latin, and unlike the Greek and Hebrew, we have no 
dual. 

§ 196. Different from the question, to what degree 
have we numbers 7 is the question, — over what extent of 



144 THE KUMBEES. 

ou?^ lajiguage have v)e 7nimhers 7 This distinction has 
already been foreshadowed or indicated. The Greeks, 
who said typtd = Iheatj typteton^ye tico heat, typtomen 
= we heat, had a dual number for their verbs as well as 
their nouns ; while the Hebrew dual was limited to the 
nouns only. In the Greek, then, the dual number is 
spread over a greater extent of the language than in the 
Hebrew. 

There is no dual in the present English. It has been 
seen, however, that in the Anglo-Saxon there was a dual. 
But the Anglo-Saxon dual, being restricted to the person- 
al pronouns (wit = we two ; git = ye two), was not co-ex- 
tensive with the Greek dual. 

There is no dual in the present German. In the an- 
cient German there ivas one. 

In the present Danish and Swedish there is no dual. 
In the Old Norse and in the present Icelandic a dual 
number is to be found. 

Frrjm this we learn that the dual number is one of 
thost. inflections that languages drop as they become mod- 
ern. 

§ 197. The numbers, then, in the present English are 
two, the singular and the plural. Over what extent of 
language have we a plural? The Latins say honus 
pater — a good father ; honi patres =good fathers. In 
the Latin, the adjective honus changes its form with the 
change of number of the substantive that it accompanies. 
In English it is only the substantive that is changed. 
Hence we see that in the Latin language the numbers 
were extended to adjectives, whereas in English they 
are confined to the substantives and pronouns. Com- 
pared with the Anglo-Saxon, the present English is in 
the same relation as it is with the Latin. In the Anglo- 
Saxon there were plural forms for the adjectives. 



THE NUMBERS. 145 

§ 198. Respecting the formation of the plural, the cur- 
rent rule is, that it is formed from the singular by adding 
s, as father, fathers. This, however, is by no means 
a true expression. The letter 5 added to the ^YOYd fathe?', 
making it fathers, is s to the e^e only. To the ear it is 
z. The word sounds father z. If the s retained its sound 
the spelling would be fatherce. In stags, lads, (fee, the 
sound is siagz, ladz. The rule, then, for the formation 
of the English plurals, rigorously, though somewhat 
lengthily expressed, is as follows. — The plural is formed 
from the smgular, by adding to words endiiig in a 
vowel, a liquid or flat m,ute, the flat lene sibilant (z);^ 
and to words endi?ig in a sharp 'mute, the sharp lejie 
sibilant {s): e.g. (the sound of the word being expressed), 
pea, peaz ; tree, trcez; day, dayz ; hill, hillz ; hen, 
henz ; gig, gigz ; trap, traps; pit, pits; stack, stacks. 

§ 199. Upon the formation of the English plural some 
further remarks are necessary. 

a. In the case of words ending in b, v, d, the th in 
thine = ^, ox g, a change either of the final flat consonant, 
or of the sharp s affixed, was not a matter of choice but of 
necessity; the combinations abs, avs, ads, d^s, ags, 
being unpronounceable. 

b. Whether the first of the two mutes should be ac- 
commodated to the second {aps, afs, ats, a]'s, aks), or the 
second to the first {abz, avz, adz, a^z, agz), is deter- 
mined by the habit of the particular language in ques- 
tion ; and, with a few apparent exceptions it is the rule of 
the English language to accommodate the second sound to 
the first, and not vice versd. 

c. Such combinations as peas, trees, hills, hens, &c., 
(the s preserving its original power, and being sounded as 
is written peace, treece, hillce, hence), being pronounceable, 
the change from s to z, in words so ending, is 7iot a 

8 



146 ' THE NUMBEKS. 

matter determined by tlie necessity of the case, but by the 
habit of the English language. 

d. Although the vast majority of our plurals ends, not 
in 5, but in z^ the original addition was not z, but s. 
This we infer from three facts : 1. From the spelling ,* 2. 
from the fact of the sound of z being either rare or non- 
existent in Anglo-Saxon ; 3. from the sufficiency of the 
causes to bring about the change. 

It may now be seen that some slight variations in the 
form of our plurals are either mere points of orthography, 
or else capable of being explained on very simple eu- 
phonic principles. 

§ 200. Box'es, churches, judges, lashes, kisses, blazes^ 
frinces. — Here there is the addition, not of the mere 
letter s, but of the syllable -es. As s cannot be imme- 
diately added to s, the intervention of a vowel becomes 
necessary ; and that all the words whose plural is formed 
in -es really end either in the sounds of 5, or in the allied 
sounds of z, sh, or zh, may be seen by analysis ; since 
X = ks, ch = tsh, and J or ge = dzh, whilst ce, in prince, is 
a mere point of orthography for s. 

Monarchs, heresiarchs. — Here the ch equals not tsh, 
but k, so that there is no need of being told that they do 
not follow the analogy of church, (fee. 

Cargoes, echoes. — Erom cargo and echo, with the 
addition of e ; an orthographical expedient for the sake of 
denotins; the leng-th of the vowel o. 

Beauty, beauties ; key, keys. — ^Like the word cargoes, 
(fee, these forms are points, not of etymology, but of 
orthography. 

Pence. — The peculiarity of this word consists in having 
a flat liquid followed by the sharp sibilant 5 (spelt ce), 
contrary to the rule given above. In the first place, it is 
a contracted form from peji7iies ; in the second place, its 



THE NUMBEES. 147 

sense is collective rather tlian plural ; in the third place, 
the use of the sharp sibilant lene distinguishes it from 
fens^ sounded penz. That its sense is collective rather 
than plural, we learn from the "vyord sixpence, which, 
compared with sixpences, is no plural, but a singular 
form. 

Dice. — In respect to its form, peculiar for the reason 
that pence is peculiar. — We find the sound of 5 after a 
vowel, where that of z is expected. This distinguishes 
dice for play, from dies (diz) for coining. Dice, perhaps, 
like pence, is collective rather than plural. 

In geese, lice, and mice, we have, apparently, the 
same phenomenon as in dice, viz., a sharp sibilant (.9) 
where ^Jiat one {z) is expected. The s, however, in these 
words is not the sign of the plural, but the last letter of 
the original word. 

Alms. — This is no true plural form. The 5 belongs 
to the original word, Anglo-Saxon, cBlmesse; Greek, 
iXerj/jLoavvr) ; just as the s in goose does. How far the 
word, although a true singular in its form, may have a 
collective signification, and require its verb to be plural, 
is a point not of etymology, but of syntax. The same is 
the case with the word riches, from the French richesse. 
In riches the last syllable being sounded as ez, increases 
its liability to pass for a plural. 

News, Queans, j^ains. — These, the reverse of alms and 
riches, are true plural forms. How far, in sense, they 
are singular is a point not of etymology, but of syntax. 

Mathematics, inetaphysics, politics, ethics, optics, 'phy- 
sics. — The following is an exhibition of my hypothesis 
respecting these words, to which I invite the reader's 
criticism. All the words in point are of Greek origin, 
.ind all are derived from a Greek adjective. Each is 
the name of some department of study, of some art, or 



148' THE NUMBEES. 

of some science. As tlie words are Greek, so also are 
the sciences which they denote, either of Greek origin, 
or else such as flourished in Greece. Let the arts and 
sciences of Greece be expressed in Greek, rather by a 
substantive and an adjective combined, than by a simple 
substantive ; for instance, let it be the habit of the lan- 
guage to say the musical art^ rather than TJiusic. Let 
the Greek for art be a word in the feminine gender ; 
e. g., TexvT] {tekhncB)^ so that the musical art be 97 jjuovaUr) 
Tkyyn] {hcB mousikcB tekhnce). Let, in the progress of lan- 
guage (as was actually the case in Greece), the article 
and substantive be omitted, so that, for the musical art, 
or for music, there stand only the feminine adjective, 
fjLovaUrj. Let there be, upon a given art or science, a 
series of books, or treatises ; the Greek for hook, or 
treatise, being a neuter substantive, j3l/3Xtov (biblion). 
Let the substantive meaning treatise be, in the course of 
language, omitted, so that whilst the science of physics is 
called (f)VcrLK'r] {fysikce), physic, from ^ (j)va-[K7] ri'^vr], a 
series of treatises (or even chapters) upon the science 
shall be called ^vaiKa {fysika) or physics. Now all this 
was what happened in Greece. The science was denoted 
by a feminine adjective singular, as <jivaLK7] {fysicce), and 
the treatises upor. it, by the neuter adjective plural, as 
<j)v<TCKa {fysika). The treatises of Aristotle are generally 
so named. To apply this, I conceive, that in the middle 
ages a science of Greek origin might have its name drawn 
from two sources, viz., from the name of the art or science, 
or from the name of the books wherein it was treated. In 
the first case it had a singular form, as physic, logic ; in 
the second place a plural form, as mathematics, metaphy- 
sics, optics. 

In what number these words, having a collective sense, 
require their verbs to be, is a point of syntax. 



THE NUMBERS. 149 

§ 201. The plural form children {child-er-en) requires 
particular notice. 

In the first place it is a double plural ; the -en being 
the -en in oxen^ whilst the simpler form child-er occurs in 
the old English, and in certain provincial dialects. 

Now, what is the -er in child-er 7 

In Icelandic, no plural termination is commoner than 
that in -r ; as geisl-ar = flashes^ tung-ur = tongues, &c. 
Nevertheless, it is not the Icelandic that explains the 
plural form in question. 

Besides the word childer, we collect from the Old 
High German the following forms in -r : — 



Hus-ir, 


Houses, 


Chalp-ii-, 


Calves, 


Lemp-ir, 


Lambs, 


Plet-ir, 


Blades of grass, 


Eig-ir, 


'Eggs, 



and others, the peculiarity of which is the fact of their all 
being of the neuter gender. 

Now, the theory respecting this form which is pro- 
pounded by Grimm is as follows : — 

1. The -r represents an earlier -s. 

2. Which was, originally, no sign of a plural number, 
but merely a neuter derivative affix, common to the 
singular as well as to the plural number. 

3. In this form it appears in the Moeso-Gothic : ag-is 
=fear (whence ague = shivering), hat-is = hate, riqv-is 
= smoke {reek). In none of these words is the -5 radical, 
and in none is it limited to the singular number. 

To these doctrines, it should be added, that the reason 
why a singular derivational affix should become the sign 
of the plural number, lies, most probably, in the collective 
nature of the words in which it occurs : Husir = a 
collection of houses, eiger = a collection of eggs, eggery 



150 THE NUMBEES, 

or eyry. In words like yeoman-r-y and Jew-r-y^ tlie -r 
has, probably, the same origin, and is collective. 

In WicliiGfe we find tbe form lamh-r-en, wliicb is to 
lamb as children is to child. 

§ 202. The form in -en. — In the Anglo-Saxon no 
termination of the plural number is more common than 
-n : tungan, tongues ; steorran^ stars. Of this termina- 
tion we have evident remains in the words oxen, hosen, 
shoon, eyne, words more or less antiquated. This, per- 
haps, is no true plural. In welk-in = the clouds, the 
original singular form is lost. 

§ 203. Men, feet, teeth, mice, lice, geese. — In these we 
have some of the oldest words in the language. If these 
were, to a certainty, true plurals, we should have an 
appearance somewhat corresponding to the so-called weak 
and strong tenses of verbs ; viz., one series of plurals 
formed by a change of the vowel, and another by the 
addition of the sibilant. The word kye, used in Scotland 
for cows, is of the same class. The list in Anglo-Saxon 
of words of this kind is different from that of the present 
English. 

Sing. Plur. 

Freond Fry'nd Friends. 

Feond Fynd Foes. 

Niht Niht Nights. 

Boc Bee Books. 

Burh Byrig. . Burghs. 

Broc Brec Breeches. 

Turf Ty'rf Turves. 

§ 204. Brethren. — Here there are two changes. 1. 
The alteration of the vowel. 2. The addition of -en. Mr. 
Guest quotes the forms hrethre and hrothre from the Old 
English. The sense is collective rather than plural. 

Peasen= pulse. — As children is a double form of one 



THE NUMBEES, 151 

sort (r + en), so is peasen a double form of anotlier 
{s + e7i) ; pea, peas, 2^ea-s-e?i. Wallis speaks to the 5m- 
gular power of the form in -s ; — "Dicunt nonnulli a 
pease, pluraliter peasen ; at melius, singulariter a fea, 
pluraliter peaseP — P. 77. He might have added, that, 
theoretically, pease was the proper singular form; as 
shown by the Latin pis-um, 
Pullen — poultry. 

Lussm-ioso. — What ? three-and-twenty years in law ? 
Vendlce. — I have kaown those who have been five-and-fifty, and all 
about pullen and pigs. — " Revenger's Tragedy," iv. 1. 

If this were a plural form, it would be a very anoma- 
lous one. The -en, however, is no more a sign of the plu- 
ral than is the -es in rich-es (richesse.) The proper form 
is in -aiji or -et/n. 

A false theefe, 
That came like a false fox, my pvllain to kill and mischeefe. 

" Gammer Gurton's Needle," v, 2. 

Chickens. — A third variety of the double inflection 
{en^s), with the additional peculiarity of the form chick-' 
en being used, at present, almost exclusively in the singu- 
lar number, although, originally, it was, probably, the 
plural of chick. So Wallis considered it : — " At olim 
etiam per -en vel -yn formabant pluralia ; quorum pauca 
admodum adhuc retinemus. Ut, an ox, a chick, plurali- 
tur 0X671, chicken (sunt qui dicunt in singulari chicken, et 
in plurali chickensy Chick, chick-en, chick-en-s. 

Fern. — According to Wallis the -n in fer-n is the -en 
in oxen, in other words a plural termination : — " A fere 
{Jilix) pluraliter fern (verum nunc plerumque fern utro- 
que numero dicitur, sed et in plurali ferns) ; nam fere et 
feres prope obsoleta sunt." Subject to this view, the word 
fer^n-s would exhibit the same phenomenon as the word 



152 THE NUMBERS. 

chicke n-s. It is doubtful, however, whether Wallis's view 
be correct. A reason for believing the -n to be radical is 
presented by the Anglo-Saxon form fearn^ and the Old 
High German, varam. 

Women. — Pronounced wimmen^ as opposed to the 
singular form ivooTuman. Probably an instance of accom- 
modation. 

Houses. — Pronounced houz-ez. The same peculiarity 
in the case of 5 and z^ as occurs between / and v in words 
like life, lives, &c. 

Paths, youths. — Pronounced padhz, yoodhz. The 
same peculiarity in the case of }? and b, as occurs between 
5 and z in the words house, houses. " Finita in / ple- 
rumque alleviantur in plurali numero, substituendo v ; ut 
wife, ivives, &c. Eademque alleviatio est etiam in s et th, 
quamvis retento charactere, in house, cloth, path.^^ 

§ 205. The words sounded houz-ez, padh-z, yoodh-z, 
taken along with the extract from Wallis, lead us to an 
important class of words. — § 199 h. 

§ 206. Certain words ending in /, like loaf, wife, &c. 

The regular plural of these would be loafs, wifes, pro- 
nounced loafce, loifce, &c. 

But this is not the case. The sound added to the final 
/ is the sound of z, not that of s. 

And the plurals are sounded loavz, wivz (wivez, 
xoeivz). 

Furthermore, the sound of the final / is changed to 
that of V ; in other words, the first of the two letters is 
accommodated to the second, in violation to the rule of 
§ 199 b. 

Can this be explained? Perhaps it can. In the 
Swedish language the letter / has the sound of v ; so 
that staf is sounded stav. 

Again, in the allied languages the words in question 



THE NUMBERS. 153 

end in the flat (not the sharp) mute, — weih, laub, calb, 
halb, stab, (fee. = wife, leaf, calf half staff. 

This makes it probable that, originally, the / in wife, 
loaf &c., was sounded as v ; so that the singular forms 
were wive, loav. 

If so, the plural is perfectly normal ; it being the 
sing^ilar form on which the irregularity lies. 



154: THE CASES. 



CHAPTER IV. 



ox THE CASES. 



§ 207. The extent to wliicli there are, in tlie English 
language, cases, depends on the meaning wHcli we attach 
to the word case. In the term a house of a father^ the 
idea exjDressed by the words of a father^ is an idea of 
relation between them and the word house. This idea is 
an idea of property or possession. The relation between 
the words father and house may be called the possessive 
relation. This relation, or connexion, between the two 
words, is expressed by the preposition of 

In the term a fathers house, the idea is. there or 
thereabouts, the same ; the relation or connexion between 
the two words being the same. The expression, however, 
differs. In a fathers house the relation, or connexion, is 
expressed, not by a preposition, but by a change of form, 
father becoming fathers. 

He gave the house to a father. — Here the words 
father and house stand in another sort of relationship, 
the relationship being expressed by the preposition to. 
The idea to a father differs from the idea of a father, in 
being expressed in one way only ; viz., by the preposition. 
There is no second mode of expressing it by a change of 
form, as was done with fathers. 

The father taught the child. — Here there is neither 
preposition nor change of form. The connexion between 



THE CASES. 155 

the words father and child is expressed by the arrange- 
ment only. 

§ 208. Now if the relation alone between two words con- 
stitute a case, the words a child, to a father, of a father, 
and father'' s, are all equally cases ; of which one may be 
called the accusative, another the dative, a third the geni- 
tive, and so on. 

Perhaps, however, the relationship alone does not con- 
stitute a case. Perhaps there is a necessity of either the 
addition of a preposition (as va. of a father), or of a 
change in form (as in father^ s). In this case (although 
child be not so) father'' s, of a father, and to a father, are 
all equally cases. 

Now it has long been remarked, that if the use of a 
preposition constitute a case, there must be as many cases 
in a language as there are prepositions, and that " above a 
tnan, beneath a 7nan, beyond a man, round about a man, 
loithin a man, without a man, shall be cases as well as 
of a man, to a man, and with a manP 

§ 209. For etymological purposes, therefore, it is ne- 
cessary to limit the meaning of the word case ; and, as a 
sort of definition, it may be laid down that where there is 
no change of form, there is no case. With this remark, 
the English language may be compared with the Latin, 



Latin. 


English, 


Sing. Norn. Pater 


a father. 


Gen. Patris . 


. a father's. 


Bat. Patri 


to a father. 


Ace. Patrem 


. a father. 


Ahl Patre 


from a father. 



Here, since in the Latin language there are five 
changes of form, whilst in English there are but two, 
there are (as far, at least, as the word fater and father 



156 THE CASES. 

are concerned) three more cases in Latin than in Eng- 
lish. 

It does not, however, follow that because in the partic- 
ular word father we have but two cases, there may not be 
other words wherein there are more than two. 

§ 210. Neither does it follow, that because two words 
may have the same form they are necessarily in the 
saTTie case ; a remark which leads to the distinction be- 
tween a real and an accidental identity of form. 

In the language of the Anglo-Saxons the genitive 
cases of the words smi^, ende, and dcBg^ were respective- 
ly, sm^i^es, e?ides, and dceges ; whilst the nominative 
plurals were, smi'6as, endas, and dcegas. 

But when a change took place, by which the vowel of 
the last syllable in each word was ejected, the result 
was, that the forms of the genitive singular and the 
nominative plural, originally different, became one and 
the same ; so that the identity of the two cases is an 
accident. 

This fact relieves the English grammarian from a 
difficulty. The nominative plural and the genitive singu- 
lar are, in the present language of England, identical ; the 
apostrophe in father'' s being a mere matter of orthogra- 
phy. However, there was once a difference. This modi- 
fies the pre^dous statement, which may now stand thus : — 
for a change of case there must he a change of form 
existing or presum^ed, 

§ 211. The number of our cases and the extent of 
language over which they spread. — In the English lan- 
guage there is undoubtedly a nominative case. This 
occurs in substantives, adjectives, and pronouns {father, 
good, he) equally. It is found in both numbers. ® 

§ 212. Accusative. — Some call this the objective case. 
The words him and them (whatever they may have been 



THE CASES. 157 

originally) are now (to a certain extent) true accusatives. 
The accusative case is found in pronouns only. Thee^ 
nie, us, and i/ou are, to a certain extent, true accusa- 
tives. These are accusative thus far : 1. They are not 
derived from any other case. 2. They are distinguished 
from the forms I, my, (fcc. 3. Their meaning is accusa- 
tive. Nevertheless, they are only imperfect accusatives. 
They have no sign of case, and are distinguished by 
negative characters only. 

One -word in the present English is probably a true 
accusative in the strict sense of the term, viz., the word 
twain = two. The -n in twai-n is the -n in hine = him 
and hwone = whom. This we see from the following 
mflection : — 

Kent Masc. Fern. 

K and Ace. Twd, Twegen, Twd. 



Abl. and Dat. Twam, Twae'm. 

Gen. Twegra, Twega. 

Although nominative as well as accusative, I have little 
doubt as to the original character of twegen being accu- 
sative. The -n is by no means radical ; besides which, 
it is the sign of an accusative case, and is not the sign of 
a nominative. 

§ 213. Dative. — In the antiquated word whilom {at 
times), we have a remnant of the old dative in -m. The 
sense of the word is abverbial ; its form, however, is that 
of a dative case. 

§ 214. Genitive. — Some call this the possessive case. 
It is found in substantives and pronouns {father^s, his), 
but not in adjectives. It is formed like the nominative 
plural, by the addition of the lene sibilant [father, 
fathers ; buck, bucks) ; or if the word end in -s, by that 
of -es {boxes, judges, (fee.) It is found in both numbers : 



158 THE CASES. 

the 771671' s hearts ; the children's bread. In the plui'al 
aumber. however, it is rare ; so rare, indeed, that Tvhere- 
ever the plural ends in s (as it almost always does), there 
is no genitive. If it were not so, we should have such 
words as fatherses. foxeses, pruiceses, &c. 

§ 215. Instriunental. — The following extracts from 
Rash's •' Anglo-Saxon Grammar,'' teach us that there 
exist in the present English two powers of the word spelt 
t-h-e, or of the so-called definite article — ■'•' The demonstra- 
tive pronoims are \cet. se. seo {id, is, ea), which are also 
used for the article : and ]>is, ]>es, ]>e6s {hoc, hic, hcec). 
They are thus declined : — 

Xeut, 2fasc. Fern. Xeut. Afasc. Fern. 

Sing X. ]?cet se seo jris J^es ]?e6s. 

A. J'aet ]:onQ ^k J-is jr-isne yks. 



Abl. \\' JTce're ]?i5e ]:\s%e 

If. ]^ani ]:£e're Jjisum ]:isse. 

G. \^i JTffi're '^liios, J'isse. 



PluT. X. and A. ]?a l»as. 

Ahl. and D. lam l^isuin. 

G. lara, lissa. 

" The indeclinable \e is often used instead of \(Bt, se, 
se6, in all cases, but especially with a relative significa- 
tion, and, in later times, as an article. Hence the En- 
glish article the. 

'•' ]>y' seems justly to be received as a proper ahlativiis 
instrii77ie?iti, as it occurs often in this character, even in 
the masculine gender ; as, mid, ]>y' d]>e = with that oath 
{'• Inse Leges,''" 53). And in the same place in the dative, 
on 'pcs'm a]>e = i7i that oath.'' — Pp. 56, 57. 

Hence the the that has originated out of the Anglo- 
Saxon yy' is one word : whilst the the that has originated 



THE CASES. 159 

out of the Anglo-Saxon J>e, another. The latter is the 
common article : the former the the in expressions like all 
the more^ all the better = more hy all that^ better by all 
that^ and the Latin phrases eo majus, eo melius. 

That why is in the same case with the instrumental 
the (= fy') may be seen from the following Anglo-Saxon 
mflexion of the interrogative pronoun : — 



Neut. 




Masc. 


K Hwset 




Hwa 


A. Hw£et 




Hwone (hwaene). 


Abl 


Hwi 




D. 


Hwam 


(hwse'm) 


G. 


Hwses. 





Hence, then, in the and why we have instrumental 
ablatives, or, simply, instrumentals. 

§ 216. The determination of cases. — How do we de- 
termine cases? In other words, why do we call him 
and them, accusatives rather than datives or genitives? 
By one of two means ; viz., either by the sense or the 
form. 

Suppose that in the English language there were ten 
thousand dative cases and as many accusatives. Suppose, 
also, that all the dative cases ended in -m, and all the 
accusatives in some other letter. It is very evident that, 
whatever might be the meaning of the words hi7n and 
them, their form would be dative. In this case the mean- 
ing being accusatives, and the form dative, we should 
doubt w^hich test to take. 

My own opinion is, that it would be convenient to 
determine cases by the for'jn of the word alone ; so that, 
even if a word had a dative sense only once, where it had 
an accusative sense ten thousand times, such a word 
should be said to be in the dative case. Now the words 



160 THE CASES. 

him and the^n (to wHcli "we may add whom) were once 
dative cases ; * -m in Anglo-Saxon being the sign of the 
dative case. In the time of the Anglo-Saxons their sense 
coincided with their form. At present they are dative 
forms with an accusative meaning. Still, as the word 
give takes after it a dative case, we have, even now, in 
the sentence, give it him, give it them, remnants of the 
old dative sense. To say give it to him, to them, is un- 
necessary and pedantic: neither do I object to the expres- 
sion, whom shall I give it? If ever the form^al test be- 
come generally recognised and consistently adheted to, 
him, them, and whom will be called datives with a lati- 
tude of meaning ; and then the only true and unequivocal 
accusatives in the English language will be the forms you, 
thee, us, me, and twain. 

§ 217. Analysis of cases. — In the word children's we 
are enabled to separate the word into three parts. 1. The 
root child. 2. The plural signs r and en. 3. The sign of 
the genitive case, s. In this case the word is said to be 
analysed, since we not only take it to pieces, but also give 
the respective powers of each of its elements; stating 
which denotes the case, and which the number. Although 
it is too much to say that the analysis of every case of 
every number can be thus effected, it ought always to be 
attempted. 

§ 218. The true nature of the genitive for m^ in 's. — ^It 
is a common notion that the genitive form father's is con- 
tracted from father his. The expression in our liturgy, 
for Jesus Christ his sake, which is merely a pleonastic 
one, is the only foundation for this assertion. As the 
idea, however, is not only one of the commonest, but also 
one of the greatest errors in etymology, the following 

* This explains the words, " Whaterer they may have been origin- 
ally,' and "to a certain extent," in § 212. 



THE CASES. 161 

three statements are given for the sake of contradiction 
to it. 

1. The expression the Queen^s Majesty/ is not capable 
of being reduced to the Queen his Majesty. 

2. In the form his itself, the 5 has precisely the power 
that it has in father's^ (fcc. Now his cannot be said to 
arise out o^he-\-his. 

3. In the Slavonic, Lithuanic, and classical tongues, 
the genitive ends in 5, just as it does in English ; so that 
even if the words father his would account for the 
English word father's^ it would not account for the San- 
skrit genitive pad-as, of a foot ; the Zend dughdhar-s, of a 
daughter ; the Lithuanic dugter-s ; the Greek 686vt-o<; ; 
the Latin dent-is, &c. 



162 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 



CHAPTER V. 



THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 



§ 219. /, loe, 2CS, me, thou, ye. — Tliese constitute the 
true personal pronouns. From he, she, and it, they differ 
in being destitute of gender. 

These latter words are demonstrative rather than per- 
sonal, so that there are in English true personal pronouns 
for the first two persons only. 

§ 220. The usual declension of the personal pronouns 
is exceptionable. I and me, thou and ye, stand in no 
etymological relations to each other. The true view of the 
words is, that they are not irregular but defective. / has 
no oblique, and me no nominative case. And so it is with 
the rest. 

§ 221. ITou. — As far as the practice of the present 
mode of speech is concerned, the word you is a 7iomina~ 
five form ; since we say yoi', move, you are moving, you 
were speaking. 

Why should it not be treated as such ? There is no 
absolute reason why it should not. The Anglo-Saxon 
form for you was eoio, for ye, ge. Neither bears any 
sign of case at all, so that, form for form, they are equally 
and indifferently nominative and accusative. Hence, it, 
perhaps, is more logical to say that a certain form (yow), 
is used either as a nominative or accusative, than to say 



PERSOKAL PEONOUNS. 163 

that the accusative case is used instead of a nominative. 
It is clear that yoic can be used^instead of ye only so far 
as it is nominative in power. 

Ye. — As far as the evidence of such expressions as 
get on luith ye is concerned, the word ye is an accusative 
form. The reasons why it should or should not be treated 
as such are involved in the previous paragraph. 

§ 222. Me. — carrying out the views just laid down, 
and admitting you to be a nominative, or gwasi-nomina- 
tive case, we may extend the reasoning to the word me, 
and call it also a secondary or equivocal nominative ; in- 
asmuch as such phrases as it is me it = is I are com- 
mon. 

Now to call such expressions incorrect English is to 
assume the point. Ko one says that c^est moi is bad 
French, and that c'est je is good. 

§ 223. Caution. — Observe, however, that the expres- 
sion it is me=it is I will not justify the use of it is him, 
it is her = it is he and it is she. Me, ye, you, are what 
may be called indifferent forms, i. e., nominative as much 
as accusative, and accusative as much as nominative. 
Him and her, on the other hand, are not indifferent. The 
-m and -r are respectively the signs of cases other than 
the nominative. 

§ 224. Again : the reasons which allow the form you 
to be considered as a nominative plural, on the strength of 
its being used for ye, will not allow it to be considered a 
nominative singular on the strength of its being used for 
thou. 

§ 225. In phrases like you are speaking, &c., even 
when applied to a single individual, the idea is really 
plural ; in other words, the courtesy consists in treating 
one person as more than one, and addressing him as such, 



164: PEESONAL PEONOUNS. 

rather tlian in using a plural form in a singular sense. It 
is certain that, grammatically considered, you == thou is a 
plural, since the verb "with which it agrees is plural : — you 
are speakings not you art speakiug. 



EELATIYE PRONOUN. 165 



CHAPTER VI. 

ON THE TRUE REFLECTIVE PRONOUN IN THE GOTHIC LANGUAGES, 
AND ON ITS ABSENCE IN ENGLISH. 

§ 226. A TRUE reflective pronoun is wanting in Eng- 
lish. In other words, there are no equivalents to the 
Latin forms siii, sibi, se. 

Nor yet are there any equivalents to the forms suuSj 
sua, siium : since his and her are the equivalents to ejus 
and illius, and are not adjectives but genitive cases. 

At the first view, this last sentence seems unnecessary. 
It might seem superfluous to state, that, if there were no 
such primitive form as se, there could be no such second- 
ary form as suus. 

Such, however, is not the case. Suus might exist in 
the language, and yet se be absent ; in other words, the 
derivative form might have continued whilst the original 
one had become extinct. 

Such is really the case with the Old Frisian. The 
reflective personal form, the equivalent to se, is lost, 
whilst the reflective possessive form, the equivalent to 
suus, is foun^l In the Modern Frisian, however, both 
forms are ]^^ 



166 DEMONSTEATIYE PE0IT0UK3. 



CHAPTER YII. 

THE DEMONSTE.ATIVE PRONOUNS. &C. 

§ 22T. The demonstrative pronouns are, 1. He, it. 
2. She. 3. This, that. 4. The, 

He, she, and it, generally looked on as personal, are 
liere treated as demonstrative pronouns, for the following 
reasons. 

1. The personal pronouns form an extremely natural 
class, if the pronouns of the two first persons be taken 
by themselves. This is not the case if they be taken 
along with he, it, and she. 

2. The idea expressed by he, it, and she is naturally 
that of demonstrativeness. In the Latin language is, ea, 
id ; ille, ilia, illud ; hie, hcec, hoc, are demonstrative pro- 
nouns in sense, as well as in declension. 

3. The plural forms thei/, the?n, in the present English, 
are the plural forms of the root of that, a true demon- 
strative pronoun ; so that even if he, she, and it could 'be 
treated as personal pronouns, thei/ could not. 

4. The word she has grown out of the Anglo-Saxon 
se6, Kow se6 was in Anglo-Saxon the feminine form of 
the definite article ; the definite article itself being ori- 
ginally a demonstrative pronoun. 

§ 228. Compared with the Anglo-Saxon the present 
English stands as follows : — 

She. — The Anglo-Saxon form he6, being lost to the 
language, is replaced by the feminine article se6. 



DEMONSTKATIVE PEONOUNS. 167 

§ 229. Her. — This is a case, not of the present she^ 
but of the Anglo-Saxon h€6 : so that she may be said to 
be defective in the obhque cases, and her to be defective 
in the nominative. 

Him. — A dative form, which has replaced the Anglo- 
Saxon hine. When used as a dative, it was neuter as 
well as masculine. 

His. — Originally neuter as well as masculine. Now 
as a neuter, replaced by its — " et quidem ipsa vox his, ut 
et interrogativum whose, nihil aliud sunt quam hee^s, 
who's, ubi s omnino idem prsestat quod in aliis possessivis. 
Similiter autem his pro hee's eodem errore quo nonnun- 
quam bin pro been ; item ivhose pro ivho^s eodem errore 
quo done, gone, knoivne, growne, (fcc, pro doen, goen, 
knowen, vel do^n, goht, know''n, groid'n ; utrobique contra 
analogiam linguas ; sed usu defenditur." — Wallis, c. v. 

It. — Changed from the Anglo-Saxon hit, by the ejec- 
tion of h. The t is no part of the original word, but a 
sign of the neuter gender, forming it regularly from he. 
The same neuter sign is preserved in the Latin id and 
illud. 

Its. — In the course of time the nature of the neuter sign 
t, in it, the form being found in but a few words, became 
misunderstood. Instead of being looked on as an affix, it 
passed for part of the original word. Hence was formed 
from it the anomalous genitive its superseding the Saxon 
his. The same was the case with — ■ 

Hers. — The r is no part of the original word, but the 
sign of the dative case. These formations are of value in 
the history of cases. • ' 

§ 230. Theirs. — In the same predicament with hers 
and its ; either the case of an adjective, or a case formed 
from a case. 

Than or then, and there. — Although now adverbs, 



168 



DEMONSTKATIVE PKONOUNS. 



they were once demonstrative pronouns, in a certain case 
and in a certain gender, viz., than and then masculine ac- 
cusative and singular, there feminine dative and singular. 
§ 231. An exhibition of the Anglo-Saxon declension 
is the best explanation of the English. Be it observed, 
that the cases marked in italics are found in the present 
language. 

Se, seo (==she). 

Of this word we meet two forms only, both of the 
singular number, and both in the nominative case ; viz., 
masc, se ; fem. seC (=the). The neuter gender and the 
other cases of the article were taken from the pronoun 
l^cBt (=that). 

II. 

Ipcet (=that, the), and J>^s (==this). 



mut 


Masc. 


Fem. 


Neut. 


Masc. 


Fem. 


Ing. Norn. ]><xt 


— 


— 




Ipis 


>e9 


])e6s. 


Ace. ]>(st 


Ipone 


>a 




>i9 


)iisne 


>ds. 


Abl. \y 


h 


\cE're. 


]>ise 


}>ise 


>isse. 


Dat. ]7am 


>am 


>.' 


re. 


Jiisum 


)>isum 


J>isse. 


Gen. J) ass 


>^s 


^ce're. 


Jiises 


]?ises 


Jisse. 


Plur. Nom. Ace. 


Ipd. 








\ds. 




Abl. Dat. 


Ipdm. 








)>isum. 




Gen. 


d ra. 




III. 




])issa. 




Hit (=it), {he 


-he), 


hed (= she). 




Sing. NoTTi 


I. 


hit 


he hed 








Ace. 




hit 


hine hi 








Bat. 




him 


him hire 








Gen. 

Plur. Nom. u 


his 


his hire 






J 


4.ce. 


hi. 






Dat. 




him (heom). 






Gen. 




hira (heora). 










IV. 









^e (the) — Undeclined, and used for all cases and genders. 



DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 169 

§ 232. These. — Here observe — 

1st. That the 5 is no inflection, but a radical part of 
the word, like the 5 in geese. 

2nd. That the Anglo-Saxon form is \ds. 

These facts create difficulties in respect to the word 
these. Mr. Guest's view is, perhaps, the best ; viz.^ that 
the plural element of the word is the final -e, and that 
this -e is the old English and Anglo-Saxon adjective 
plural ; so that thes-e is formed from this, as gode ( = 
honi) is from god ( = bonus). 

The nominative plural in the Old English adjective 
ended in e- ; as, 

Singular. Plural. 

M. F. N. M. F. N. 

God, god, god, gode. 

In Old English MSS. this plural in -e is general. It 
occurs not only in adjectives and pronouns as a regular 
inflection, but even as a plural of the genitive his, that 
word being treated as a nominative singular ; so that 
hise is formed from his, as siii from suus, or as eji might 
have been formed from ejus ; provided that in the Latin 
language this last word had been mistaken for a nominative 
singular. The following examples are Mr. Guest's. 

1. In these lay a gret multitude of syke men, hlinae, crokid, and drye. 
— Wicliffe, Jon. v. 

2. In all the orders foure is non that can 
So much of dalliance and faire language, 
He hadde ymade ful many a marriage — 
His tippet -was ay farsed ful of knives, 
And pinnes for to given faire wives. 

Chau., Prol. 

8. And al the cuntre of Judee wente out to him, and alle men ot 
Jarusalem, — Wicliffe, Mark i. 

* 9 



170 DEMONSTBATIVE PHONO UITS. 

4. He gliyueth lif to alle men, and brething, and alle tliingis ; and 
made of von al kynde of men to inhabit on al the face of the erthe.— 
Wicliffe, Dedis of Apostlis, xvil 

5. That fadres sone -which alle thinges -wrought ; 
And all, that •wrought is -with a skiKul thought, 
The Gost that from the fader gan precede, 
Hath souled hem. 

Chau., The Second Konnes Tale. 

6. And alle we that ben in this aray 
And maken all this lamentation, 
"We losten alle our husbondes at that toun. 

Chau., The Knightes Tales. 

'7. A good man biyngeth forth gode thingsis of good tresore. — Wicliffe, 
Matt. xii. 

8. So eveiy good tree maketh gode fruy tis, but an yvel tree maketh 
yvel fruytes. A good tree may not mak yvel fruytis, neither an yvel tree 
may make gode fruytis. Every tree that maketh not good fi-uyt schal be 
cut do-wn. — Wicliffe, Matt. vii. 

9. Men loveden more darknessis than light for her "werkes weren yvele, 
for ech man that doeth yvel, hateth the light. — Wicliffe, John iii. 

10. And othere seedis felden among thornes "wesen up and strangliden 
hem, and othere seedis felden into good lend and gaven fruyt, sum an 
hundred fold, another sixty fold, an other thiitty fold, &c. — Wicliffe, 
Matt. xiii. 

11. Yet the -while he spake to the puple lo his mother and his€ 
brethren stonden mthoute forth. — Wicliffe, Mat. xii. 

12. And hise disciplis camen and taken his body. — Wicliffe, Matt, 
xiv. 

13. When thise Bretons tuo were fled out of this lond 
Ine toke his feaute of aUe, <£;c. 

Roh Brunne, p. 3. 

14. This is thilk disciple that bereth -witnessyng of these thingis, and 
wroot them. — Wicliffe, John xxi 

15. Seye to us in what powers thou doist these thingis, and who is he 
that gaf to thee this power. — Wicliffe, Luke xx. 



DEMONSTEATIVE PEONOUNS. 



171 



§ 233. Those. — Perhaps the Anglo-Saxon \d with 5 
added. Perhaps the \ds from \is with its power altered. 
Rask, in his Anglo-Saxon Grammar, writes " from l^is 
we find, in the plural, \cbs for \(is. From which after- 
wards, with a distinction in signification, these and thoseP 
The English form they is illustrated by the Anglo-Saxon 
form "^age^yd. The whole doctrine of the forms in 
question has yet to assume a satisfactory shape. 

The present declension of the demonstrative pronouns 
is as follows : — • 

A. 
She. — Defective in the oblique cases. 







B. 










Ee. 








Masc. 




Neut. 


Fern. 


Norn, 


He 


, . . 


It (from hit) 


— 


Ace. 


Him 


... 


It 


.. Her. 


Bat. 


Him 




— 


.. Her. 


Gen. 


His 




— 


Her. 


Secondary Gen. — 


... 


Its 


Hers. 






!N"o plural 


form. 








C. 










I. 










That 








Neut. 




Masc. 


Fern. 


Sing. Nom. 


That 


... 


— 


— 


Ace. 


That 


• .. 


Than,* then* . 


— 


Dat. 


V 


... 


— 


There 


Instrumental 


..• 


Thence. 




Plur. Norn. 


... . 




They.f 




Ace. 







Them.f 




Gen. 


• • • • 


.. ... 


Their.f 




Secondary Gen. 


adverbs. 





Their3.f 




* Used as 


f Used 1 


is the plurals of he, she, and it. 



172 DEMONSTEATIVE PEONOUNS. 

IL 

Singular, This. Plural, Thesa 

III. 
Those. 

ly. 

The — UudeclineA 



RELATIVE AND OTHER PRONOUNS. 173 



CHAPTEU VIIL 



PRONOUNS. 



§ 234. In the relative and interrogative pronouns, 
who, what^ whom, whose, we have, expressed by a change 
of form, a neuter gender, what ; a dative case whom ; and 
a genitive case, whose : the true power of the s {viz., as 
the sign of a case) being obscured by the orthographical 
addition of the e mute. 

To these may be added, 1. the adverb why, originally 
the ablative form hvi {quo modo ? qua via 7). 2. The 
adverb where, a feminine dative, like there. 3. When, 
a masculine accusative (in Anglo-Saxon hwcene), and 
analogous to then. 

The two sounds in the Danish words hvi, hvad, &c., 
and the two sounds in the English, what, when (Anglo- 
Saxon, hwoit, hwcene) account for the forms why and 
how. In the first the w alone, in the second the h alone, 
is sounded. The Danish for why is hvi, pronounced 
vi. 

§ 235. The following remarks (some of them not 
strictly etymological) apply to a few of the remaining 
pronouns. 

Same. — Wanting in Anglo-Saxon, where it was re 
placed by the word ylca, ylce. Probably derived from the 
Norse. 

Self. — In myself, thyself, herself, ourselves, yourselves, 



174 

a substantive (or with a substantival power), and pre- 
ceded by a genitive case. In himself and themselves an 
adjective (or with an adjectival power), and preceded by 
an accusative case. Itself is equivocal, since we cannot 
say whether its elements are it and self or its and self ; 
the 5 having been dropped in utterance. It is very 
evident that either the form like him^self or the form 
like thyself is exceptionable ; in other words, that the 
use of the word is inconsistent. As this inconsistency 
is as old as the Anglo-Saxons, the history of the word 
gives us no elucidation. In favour of the forms like 
myself (self being a substantive), are the following 
facts : — 

1. The plural word selves, a substantival, and not an 
adjectival form. 

2. The Middle High German phrases min lip, din lip, 
my body, thy body, equivalent in sense to myself thyself 

3. The circumstance that if self be dealt with as a 
substantive, such phrases as Tny own self, his oivn great 
self &c., can be used ; whereby the language is a 
gainer. 

" Vox self, pluraliter selves, quamvis etiam pronomen 
a quibusdam censeatur (quoniam ut plurimum per La- 
tinum ipse redditur), est tamen plane nomen substan- 
tivum, cui quidem vix aliquod apud Latinos substantivum 
respondet ; proximo tamen accedet vox persona vel 
propria persona ut Tny self, thy self, our selves, your 
selves, &c. [ego ipse, tu ipse, nos ipsi, vos ipsi, &c.), ad 
verbum mea persona, tua persona, &c. Fateor tamen 
himself itself themselves, vulgo dici pro his-self its-self 
theirselves ; at (interposito own) his own self, &c., ipsius 
"propria persona, (fee." — Wallis. c. vii. 

4. The fact that many persons actually say hisself 
and theirselves. 



AND OTHER PRONOUNS. 176 

Whit. — As in tlie phrase jiot a ivhit. This enters in 
the compound pronouns aright and naught. 

One. — As in the |)hrase one does so and so. From 
the French on. Ohserve that this is from the Latin homo^ 
in Ohl French hom>, om. In the Germanic tongues man 
is used in the same sense : 7nan sagt =one says — on dit. 
One^ like self and other^ is so far a substantive, that it is 
inflected. Gen. sing, one's own self: plural, 7ny wife and 
little 07ies are well. 

Derived 'pronouns. — Any, in Anglo-Saxon, mnig. In 
Old High German we have einic = any, and einac = 
sijigle. In Anglo-Saxon anega means single. In Mid- 
dle High German einec is ahvays single. In Kew High 
German einig means, 1. a certain person {quidani), 
2. agreeing ; einzig, meaning single. In Dutch eneck 
has both meanings. This indicates the word an, one, as 
the root of the word in question. 

Compound pronou?ts. — Which, as has been already 
stated more than once, is most incorrectly called the neu- 
ter of 7f;ho. Instead of being a neuter, it is a compound 
word. The adjective leiks, like, is preserved in the Moeso- 
Gothic words sraleiks and missaleiks. In Old Hi<^h Ger- 



fc) 



man the form is lih, in Anglo-Saxon lie. Hence we have 
Moeso-Gothic hveleiks ; Old High German, huelih ; An- 
glo-Saxon, huilic and hvilc ; Old Frisian, hivelik ; Danish, 
Jivilk-en; German, -i^eZcA ; Scotch, whilk ; English, WifcA. 
The same is the case with — 

1. Such. — Moeso-Gothic, svaleiks ; Old High German, 
sdlih ; Old Saxon, sidic ; Anglo-Saxon, svilc ; German, 
solch ; English, such. Hash's derivation of the Anglo- 
Saxon swilc from swa-ylc, is exceptionable. 

2. Thilk. — An old English word, found in the pro- 
vincial dialects, as thick, thuck, theck, and hastily derived 
by Tyrwhitt, Ritson. and Weber, from se. ylca, is found 



176 OF EELATIYE, IXTEREOGATIVE, 

in tlie following forms : Moeso-Gotliic, ]>eleiks ; Norse. 
yvilikr. 

3. Ilk. — Found in tlie Scotch, and always preceded 
by the article ; the ilk, or that ilk, meaning the same. 
In Anglo-Saxon this word is ycla, preceded also by the 
article se ylca, seo ylce, \cet ylce. In English, as seen 
above, the word is replaced by same. In no other Gothic 
dialect does it occur. According to Grimm, this is no 
simple word, but a compound one, of wdiich some such 
w^ore as ei is the first, and lie the second element. 

Aught. — In Mosso-Gothic is found the particle, aiv, 
ever, but only in negative propositions ; ni {not) preceding 
it. Its Old High German form is eo, io ; in Middle High 
German, ie ; in New High German, je ; in Old Saxon, 
io ; in Anglo-Saxon, a ; in Norse, ce. Combined with 
this particle the word ichit {thing) gives the following 
forms : Old High German, eoiviht ; Anglo-Saxon, aviht ; 
Old Frisian, aioet ; English aught. The W'ord naught is 
aught preceded by the negative particle. 

Each. — The particle gi enters, like the particle in the 
composition of pronouns. Old High German, eogaliher, 
every one ; eocalih, all ; Middle High German, iegelich ; 
New High German, jeglich ; Anglo-Saxon, cdc ; Eng- 
lish, each ; the I being dropped, as in which and such, 
u^lc, as the original of the English each and the Scotch 
ilka,* must by no means be confounded with the word 
ylce, the same. 

Every in Old English, everich, everech, everilk one, 
is celc, preceded by the particle ever. (Grimm. D. G. 
iii. 54.) 

Either. — Old High German, eogahuedar ; Middlo 
High German, iegeweder ; Anglo-Saxon, ccghva/tcr^ 
ceg^cr ; Old Frisian, eicZer. 

* Different from ilh. 



AND OTHER PRONOUNS. 177 

ISeither. — The same with the negative article prefixed. 
Neither : either : : naught : aught. 

§ 236. Other, whether. — These words, although deriv- 
ed forms, being simpler than some that have preceded, 
might fairly have been dealt with before. They make, 
however, a transition from the present to the succeeding 
chapter, and so find a place here. 

A. First, it may be stated of them that the idea which 
they express is not that of one out of many, but that of 
one out of two. 

1. In Sanscrit there are two forms,*) kataras, the 
same word as whether, meaning which out of two ;'°) ka- 
tamas, which out of many. So also ekateras, one ov,t 
of two ; ekatamas, one out of m^any. In Greek the 
Ionic form Korepo^; (Trore/jo?) ; in Latin, uter, neuter, 
alter ; and in Moeso-Gothic, hvathar, have the same form 
and the same meaning. 

2. In the Scandinavian language the word anden, Da- 
no-Saxon, annar, Iceland, corresponds to the English word 
second, and not the German zweite : e. g., Karl den 
Anden, Charles the Second. Now anthar is the older 
form of other. 

B. Secondly, it may be stated of them, that the ter- 
mination -er is the same termination that we find in the 
comparative degree. 

1. The idea expressed by the comparative degree is 
the comparison, not of many but of two things ; this is 
better than that. 

2. In all the Indo-European languages where there 
are pronouns m -ter, there is also a comparative degree in 
-ter. See next chapter. 

3. As the Sanscrit form kataras corresponds with the 
comparative degree, where there is the comparison of two 
things with each other ; so the word katamas is a super- 

9* 



178 OF EELATIVE AlTD OTHER PRONOUNS. 

latiye form ; and in tlie superlative degree lies the com- 
parison of many things with each other. 

Hence other and whether (to "which may be added 
either and neither) are pronouns with the comparative 
form. 

Other has the additional peculiarity of possessing the^ 
plural form others. Hence, like self^ it is, in the strictest 
sense, a substantival pronoun. 



CERTAIN FORMS IN ER. 179 



CHAPTER IX. 



ON CERTAIN FORMS IN -ER. 



§ 237. Preparatory to tlie consideration of the de- 
grees of comparison, it is necessary to make some remarks 
npon a certain class of words, whicli, with considerable 
differences of signification, all agree in one fact, viz., all 
terminate in -er, or t-er. 

1. Certain pronouns, as ei-th-er, n-ei-th-er, ivhe-th-er, 
or o-th-er, 

2. Certain prepositions and adverbs, as ov-er, und-er, 
af-t-er. 

3. Certain adjectives, with the form of the compara- 
tive, but the power of the positive degree ; as upp-er 
und-er, irin-er, out-er, hiiid-er. 

4. All adjectives of the comparative degree ; as wis- 
er, strong-er, hett-er, &c. 

Now what is the idea common to all these words, ex- 
pressed by the sign -er, and connecting the four divisions 
into one class 1 It is not the mere idea of comparison ; 
although it is the comparative degree, to the expression 
of which the affix in question is more particularly applied. 
Bopp, who has best generalised the view of these forms, 
considers the fundamental idea to be that of duality. In 
the comparative degree we have a- relation between one 
object and some other object like it, or a relation between 
two single elements of comparison : A is wiser than B. 
In the superlative degree we have a relation between one 



180 CEKTAIN FOEMS IN -EE. 

object and all others like it, or a relation between one 
single and one complex element of comparison: A is 
loiser than B, C, D, &c. 

" As in comparatives a relation between ttco, and in 
superlatives a relation between many, lies at tbe bottom, 
it is natural that their suffixes should be transferred to 
other words, whose chief notion is individuahsed through 
that of duality or plurality." — " Yergleichende Gram- 
matik," § 292, Eastwick's and Wilson's Translation. 

The most important proofs of the view adduced by 
Bopp are, — 

1. The Sanskrit form kataras = which of two persons 7 
is a comparative form ; whilst katamas = ivhich of more 
than two persons 7 a superlative form. Similarly, ekata- 
ra^ = one of two persons ; ekatam^as = one of more than 
two persons. 

2. The Greek forms, eKarepo^ = each (or either) ont of 
two persons ; whilst eKaaro^ = each or any out of more 
than two ^persons. 

§ 238. The more important of the specific modifications 
of the general idea involved in the comparison of two ob- 
jects are, — 

1. Contrariety : as in inner ^ outer, under, upper, over. 
In Latin the words for right and left end in -er, — dexter, 
sinister. 

2. Choice in the way of an alternative ; as either, nei- 
ther, whether, other. 

§ 230. Either, neither, other, whether. — It has just 
been stated that the general fundamental idea common 
to all these forms is that of choice between one of two 
objects in the way of an alternative. Thus far the ter- 
mination -er in either, &c., is the termination -er in the 
true comparatives, brav-er, wis-er, &c. Either and 
neither are common pronouns. Other, hke one, is a 



CERTAIN FORMS IN -ER. 181 

pronoun capable of taking the plural form of a sub- 
stantive (others), and also that of the genitive case {the 
other^s money, the othefs bread). Whether is a pronoun 
in the almost obsolete form whether ( = which) of the two 
do you prefer, and a conjunction in sentences like whether 
will you do this or not ? The use of the form others is 
recent. " They are taken out of the way as all other y' 
—Job. " And leave their riches for other T — Psalms. 



182 THE COMPAEATIYE DEGEEE. 



CHAPTER X. 



THE COMPARATIVE DEGREE. 



§ 240. There are four leading facts here, — 

1. The older form in -s. In English we say old-er, 
bett-er, sweet-er; in Old High German they similarly 
said, alt-iro, bets-zV'o, snats-iro ; but in Moeso-Gothic the 
forms were ald-iz«, bat-fza, sut-zz«. 

2. Adverbs are susceptible of comparison ; e.g. — Come 
as soon as you can^ hut do not come sooner than is con- 
venient. 

3. The Anglo-Saxon comparison of the adverbs is 
different from that of the adjectives ; there being one 
form in -re and -este. another in -or and -ost respectively. 
Now the first of these was the form taken by adjectives : 
as 56 scearp-re swear d= the sharper sword, and se scearp- 
este sword =^ the sharpest sword. The second, on the 
other hand, was the form taken by adverbs : as, se sweord 
scyr^ scearp-or= the sword cuts sharper^ and se sioeord 
scyr^ scearp-ost = the sword cuts sharpest. 

4. In the Anglo-Saxon, the following words exhibit a 
change of vowel. 



Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 




Lang, 


Lengre, 


Lengest. 


Long. 


Strang, 


Strengre, 


Strengest. 


Strong. 


Geong, 


Gjngre, 


Gyngest. 


Young. 


Sceort, 


Scyrtre, 


Scyrtest. 


Short. 


Heah, 


HyiTe, 


Hyhst. 


High. 


Eald, 


Tldre, 


Tldest. 


Old. 



THE COMPARATIVE DEGREE. 183 

§ 241. Now the fourth of these facts explains the 
present forms dder and eldest, the comparatives and 
superlative of old, besides which there are the regular 
forms old-er and old-est ; between which there is, how- 
ever, a difference in meaning — elder being used as a sub- 
stantive, and having a plural form, elders. 

§ 242. The abverbial forms in -or and -ost, as com- 
pared with the adjectival in -re, and -este explain the form 
rather. This rhymes to father ; the a being full. Never- 
theless, the positive form is rather meaning quick, easy 
= the classical root paS- in pdhios. What we do quickly 
and willingly we do preferably. Now if the word rather 
were an adjective, the vowel of the comparative would 
be sounded as the a in fate, as it is, however, it is 
abverbial, and as such is properly sounded as the a in 
father. 

The difference between the action of the small vowel 
in -re, and of the full in -or effects this difference, since 
being a full vowel, it has the effect of making the a full 
also. 

§ 243. The old form in -s will be considered, after 
notice has been taken of what may be called — 

§ 244. Excess of expression. — Of this two samples 
have already been given : 1. in words like songstress ; 2. 
in words like children. This may be called excess of 
expression ; the feminine gender, in words like songstress, 
and the plural number, in words like children, being ex- 
pressed twice over. In the vulgarism betterer for better, 
and in the antiquated forms worser for luorse, and lesser 
for less, we have, in the case of the comparatives, as else- 
where, an excess of expression. In the old High Ger- 
man we have the forms betserdro, meroro, ererera = better, 
more, ere. 

§ 245. Better. — Although in the superlative form best 



184 THE COMPARATIVE DEGREE. 

there is a slight variation from the strict form of that 
degree, the word better is perfectly regular. So far, then, 
from truth are the current statements that the comparison 
of the words good^ better, and best is irregular. The in- 
flection is not irregular, but defective. As the statement 
that applies to good, better, and best applies to many 
wards besides, it will be well in this place, once for all, to 
exhibit it in full. 

§ 246. Difference between a sequence in logic and a 
sequence in etymology. — The ideas or notions of thou, thy, 
thee, are ideas between which there is a metaphysical or 
logical connexion. The train of such ideas may be said 
to form a sequence, and such a sequence may be called a 
logical one. 

The words thou, thy, thee, are words between which 
there is a formal or an etymological connexion. A train 
of such words may be called a sequence, and such a 
sequence may be called an etymological one. 

In the case of thou, thy, thee, the etymological sequence 
tallies with the logical one. 

The ideas of I, m^y, and me are also in a logical se- 
quence : but the forms I, m>y, and me are not altogether 
in an etymological one. 

In the case of I, m^y, me, the etymological sequence 
does 7iot tally (or talhes imperfectly) with the logical 
one. 

This is only another way of saying that between the 
words / and me there is no connexion in etymology. 

It is also only another way of saying, that, in the 
oblique cases, /, and, in the nominative case, f?ie, are 
defective, 

Now the same is the case with good, better, bad, 
worse, (fee. Good and bad are defective in the compa- 
rative and superlative degrees ; better and worse are 



THE COMPAEATIVE DEGREE. 185 

defective in the positive ; -whilst between good and better, 
bad and worse, there is a sequence in logic, but no 
sequence in etymology. 

§ 247. To return, however, to the word better ; no 
absolute positive degree is found in any of the allied 
languages, and in none of the allied languages is there 
found any comparative form of good. Its root occurs 
in the following adverbial forms : Moeso-Gothic, bats ; 
Old High German, pats ; Old Saxon and Anglo-Saxon, 
bet; Middle High German, baz ; Middle Dutch, bat, 
bet. 

§ 248. Worse. — This word is one of two things. 

1. It is a positive form with a comparative sense ; in 
which case s is part of the root. 

2. It is a comparative degree from the positive form 
wor- {vair,- wir-, vyr-\ in which case 5 is the 5 of the 
Old Moeso-Gothic inflexion preserved in this single 
word. 

§ 249. More. — In Anglo-Saxon this is mci ; in the 
English of the reign of Elizabeth it is moe ; and in cer- 
tain provincial dialects it is mo, at the present time. 

Notwithstanding this, i. e., the form being positive, the 
'power of the word has always been comparative, and 
meant more rather than much, or Tnany. 

§ 250. Less. — In Anglo-Saxon Icessa and Ices. Here 
there is no unequivocal sign of the comparative degree ; 
what, then, is the nature of the word? Is it a positive 
form with a comparative poAver like m^oe 7 or is it an 
old comparative in -s7 This is undecided. What does it 
come from? Grimm derives it from the Moeso-Gothic 
root lasiv --= weak. His doctrine is doubtful. I cannot 
but believe that it comes from the same root as litt-le : 
where the old Frisian form litich, shows that the -I is no 
essential part of the word, and the Danish form lille gets 



186 THE COMPAEATIYE DEGREE. 

rid of the t. Still the word is difficult ; indeed it is 
unexplained. 

§ 251. Near J nearer. — Anglo-Saxon, neah ; compara- 
tive, nearre, near^ nyr ; superlative, nyhst^ neJist. Ob- 
serve, in the Anglo-Saxon positive and superlative, the 
absence of the r. This shows that the English positive 
near is the Anglo-Saxon comparative nearre^ and that in 
the secondary comparative nearer., we have an excess of 
expressioji. It may be, however, that the r in iiear is a 
mere point of orthography, and that it is not pronounced; 
since, in the English language the words father and 
farther are, for the most part, pronounced alike. 

§ 252. Farther. — Anglo-Saxon feor, fyrre, fyrrest. 
The th seems euphonic, inserted by the same process that 
gives the S in avSpo?, from avrjp = man. 

Further. — Confounded \{ith. farther, although in reality 
from a different word, fore. Old High German, furdir ; 
New High German, der vordere ; Anglo-Saxon, fyr^re. 

§ 253. Former. — A comparative formed from the su- 
perlative ; forma being such. Consequently, an instance 
of excess of expression, combined with irregularity. 

§ 254. In Moeso-Gothic spedists means last, and 
spediza = later. Of the word spedists two views may be 
taken. According to one it is the positive degree with 
the addition of st ; according to the other, it is the com- 
parative degree with the addition only of t. Now, Grimm 
and others lay down as a rule, that the superlative is 
formed, not directly from the positive, but indirectly 
through the comparative. 

With the exception of ivorse and less, all the English 
comparatives end in -r : yet no superlative ends in -rt, the 
form being, not wise, wiser, wisert, but wise, wiser, wisest. 
This fact, without invalidating the notion just laid down, 
gives additional importance to the comparative forms in 5; 



THE COMPAEATIVE DEGREE. 187 

since it is from tliese, before they have changed to r, that 
we must suppose the superlatives to have been derived. 
The theory being admitted, we can, by approximation, 
determine the comparative antiquity of the superlative 
degree. It was introduced after the establishment of the 
comparative, and before the change of -s into -r. 



188 THE SUPEELATIYE DEGKEE. 



CHAPTER XL 



THE SUPERLATIVE DEGREE. 



§ 255. The Anglo-Saxon word fov first y(d.^ for-m-a. 

The root was /or = the Latin prcB^ the Grreek Trpo, 
and being the same combination which occurs in fore^ 
fore-m-ost^ &c. 

The m was the Anglo-Saxon sign of the superlative 
degree. 

It is the in in the Latin words pri-m-us, i?iti-7Ji-us, 
€xti-m~iis, tdti-7n-us, &c. 

It occm's even in the Gothic tongues ; in other words, 
besides for-m-a. 

In short, ?7i is an old sign of the superlative degree ; 
probably older than the usual form, -st, discussed in 
§ 254. This has some important applications. 

§ 256. Former. — This is a remarkable word : it is a 
comparative derived from the Anglo-Saxon superlative, 
and its analysis is for-m-er^ with excess of inflexion. 

§ 257. Nea-r-est. — Here the r is no part of the original 
root, as may be seen in § 251. It has grown out of -ah 
pronounced as the a in father. The true forms are- 
positive, neah ; comparative, neah-er ; superlative, 7ieah- 
est. Such, to a certain extent, is really the case. 

§ 258. Next. — The superlative of nigh, contracted from 
nigh-est. The Anglo-Saxon forms were neah, nyh-st, 
neh-st, nyh-ste. .In Anglo-Saxon the letter h was pro- 
nounced strongly, and sounded like g or k. This fact is 



THE SUPERLATIVE DEGREE. 189 

still slio-wn in the spelling ; as nigh.. In the word next 
this sound is preserved, slightly changed into that of k ; 
next = nek-st. 

§ 250. Upmost, &c. — The common statement con- 
cerning words like upmost is, that they are compound 
words, formed by the addition of the word most : this, 
however, is more than doubtful. 

The Anglo-Saxon language presents us with the fol- 
lowing forms : — 

Anglo-Saxon. English. 

Innema (inn-ema), Inmost (in-m-ost). 

tr tema (ut-ma), Outmost (out-m-ost). 

SiSema (siS-ema), Latest. 

Leetema (Iset-ema), Latest. 

NiSema (niS-ema), Nethermost (neth-er-m-ost). 

Forma (for-ma), Foremost (fore-m-ost). 

^ftema (aft-ema), Aftermost (aft-er-m-ost). 

Ufema (uf-ema), Upmost (up-m-ost). 

Hindema (hind-ema), Hindmost (hind-m-ost). 

Midema (mid-ema), Midmost (mid-m-ost). 

Now the words in question show at once, that, as 
far as they are concerned, the on that appears in the 
last syllable of each has nothing to do with the word 
onost. 

From the words in question there was formed, in 
Anglo-Saxon, a regular superlative form in the usual 
manner ; viz., by the addition of -st ; as cefte-m-est, 
fyr-Wrest, Icete-m-est, si^-m-est, yfe-m^-est, ute-m-est, inne- 
m-est. 

Hence, in the present English, the different parts of 
the syllable m.ost (in words like upTuost) come from dif- 
ferent quarters. The m is the m, in the Anglo-Saxon 
words innema, &c. ; whilst the -5^ is the common sign 
of the superlative. Hence, in separating such words as 
midmost into its component parts, we should writo 



190 



THE SUi 


'EELATIV 


^E DEGREE. 


Md-m-ost 


not 


mid-most 


Ut-m-ost 


— 


ut-most. 


XJp-m-ost 


— 


up-most. 


Fore-m-ost 


— 


fore-most. 


In-m-ost 


— 


in-most. 


Hiad-m-ost 


— 


hind-most. 


Out-m-ost 


— 


out-most. 



§ 260. In certain words, lioweyer, tlie syllable m-ost 
is added to a word already ending in -er ; tliat is. already 
marked witli tlie sign of the comparative degree. 



Neth-er-m-ost 

Utt-er-m-ost. 

Upp-er-m-ost. 



Hind-er-m-ost. 

Out-er-m-ost. 

Inn-er-m-ost 



THE CAEDINAL NUMBERS. 191 



CHAPTER XII. 



THE CARDINAL NUMBERS. 



§ 261. Generally speaking, fhe greater part of the 
cardinal numbers are undeclined. As far as number 
goes, this is necessary. 

One is naturally and exclusively singular. 

Two is naturally dual. 

The rest are naturally and exclusively j^lural. 

As to the inflection of gender and case, there is no 
reason why all the numerals should not be as fully 
inflected as the Latin unus, una, unum, unius. It is a 
mere habit of our language that they are not so in 
English. 



192 THE OEDIKAL NUMBEKS. 



CHAPTER XIII. 



THE ORDINAL NUMBERS. 



§ 262. By referring to § 259, we see that -in was an 
early sign of the superlative degree. This bears upon the 
numerals seven, nine, and ten. 

These are cardinal numbers. Nevertheless, the 
present chapter is the proper place for noticing them. 

There is good reason for believing that the final -n is 
no part of the original root. Thus, — 

a. Sev-en = \h.Q Latin sept-em, where the -w, is equi- 
valent to the -n. But in the Greek eirra, and the 
Scandinavian syv, and sju, neither -n nor -m occur. 

h. Ni-ne. — This same applies here. The Latin 
form is nov-em ; but the Greek and Norse are iwia 
and niu. 

c. Te?i. — The older form is ti-h-im, in Latin de-c-em. 
The English -n is the Latin -m. Nevertheless, in the 
Greek and Norse the forms are heKa and tuo. 

§ 263. What explains this ? The following hypothesis. 
Some of the best German authorities believe, that the -m, 
expressive of the superlative degree, was also used to 
denote the ordinal character {prdinality) of the numerals ; 
so that the -m- in deci-m-us, was the -m- in ulti-m-us 
and exti-m-us. This is the first step in the explanation. 

§ 264. The next is, to suppose that certain car- 
dinal numerals have taken and retained the ordinal 
form ; these being the — 



THE ORDINAL NUMBERS. 193 

Latin. English. Greek. Norse. 

Sept-em, sev-en, as opposed to the eTrro sjau. 

Nov-em, ni-ne " " ivvia, niu. 

Dec-em te-n " " ^^Ka tiu. 

I give no opinion as to the accuracy or erroneousness 
of this view. 

§ 265. Thir-teeii^ (fee, is three with ten added, or 
3 + 10. 

§ 266. Thir-ty, (fee, is three tens {three decades\ or 
3 X 10. In Moeso-Gothic we find the -ty in the fuller 
form tig = SeVa? in Greek. 



10 



194 THE AETICLES. 



CHAPTER XIV. 



THE ARTICLES. 



§ 267. In tlie generality of grammars the definite 
article the, and the indefinite article an, are the very 
first parts of speech that are considered. This is excep- 
tionable. So far are they from being essential to lan- 
guage, that, in many dialects, they are wholly wanting. 
In Greek there is no indefinite, in Latin there is neither 
an indefinite nor a definite article. In the former lan- 
guage they say avrjp tl<; = a certain Tnan : in the latter 
the words jilius patris mean equally the son of the fa- 
ther, a son of a father, a son of the father, or the son 
of a father. In Moeso-Gothic and in Old Norse, there is 
an equal absence of the indefinite article ; or, at any rate, 
if there be one at all, it is a diff'erent word from what oc- 
curs in English. In these the Greek rt? is expressed by 
the Gothic root sum. 

Now, since it is very evident that, as far as the sense 
is concerned, the words some man, a certain man, and a 
m^an, are much the same, an exception may be taken to 
the statement that in Greek and Moeso-Gothic there is no 
indefinite article. It may, in the present state of the 
argument, be fairly said that the words sum, and Ti? are 
pronouns with a certain sense, and that a and an are no 
more ; consequently, that in Greek the indefinite article is 
Tt9, in Moeso-Gothic sum, and in English a or an. 



THE ARTICLES. 195 

A distinction, however, may be made. In the expres- 
sion dvijp Tt? {aiicer tis) = a certain maji, or a 77ian, and 
in the expression siwi maun, the words siwi and rt? pre- 
serve their natural and original meaning; whilst in a 
7}ia?i and a?i ox the words a and an are used in a second- 
ary sense. These words, as is currently known, are one 
and the same, the 7i, in the form «, being ejected through 
a euphonic process. They are, moreover, the same words 
with the numeral one; Anglo-Saxon, an; Scotch, ane. 
Now, between the words a Tnan and one inan^ there is a 
difference in meaning ; the first expression being the most 
indefinite. Hence comes the difference between the Eng- 
lish and Moeso-Gothic expressions. In the one the word 
sum has a natural, in the other, the word an has a second- 
ary power. 

The same reasoning applies to the word the. Com- 
pared with a man^ the words the man are very* definite. 
Compared, however, with the words that Tnan^ they are 
the contrary. Now, just as an and a have arisen out of 
the numeral one^ so has the arisen out of the demonstra- 
tive pronoun }?«/, or at least from some common root. It 
will be remembered that in Anglo-Saxon there was a form 
]?e, undeclined, and common to all the cases of all the 
numbers. 

In no lano-uao-e in its oldest staf2;e is there ever a word 
giving, in its primary sense, the ideas of a and the. As 
tongues become modern, some noun wdth a similar sense is 
used to express them. In the course of time a change of 
form takes place, corresponding to the change of meaning ; 
e. g"., one becomes an^ and afterwards a. Then it is that 
articles become looked upon as separate parts of speech, 
and are dealt with accordingly. No invalidation of this 
statement is cbawn from the Greek language. Although 
the first page of the etymology gives us o, >;, to (/?o, hce^ 



196 THE AETICLES. 

to\ as tlie definite articles, tlie corresponding page in the 
syntax informs us, that, in the oldest stage of the language, 
6 {ho) = they had the power of ovro^ (Jioiotos) = this. 

The origin of the articles seems uniform. In German 
ein, in Danish en^ stand to one in the same relation that 
a7i does. The French ?m, Italian and Spanish uno^ are 
similarly related to U7ius=one. 

And as, in English, the. in German der,iR Danish 
den, come from the demonstrative pronouns, so, in the 
classical languages, are the French le, the Italian il and 
lo, and the Spanish el, derived from the Latin demonstra- 
tive ille. 

In his " Outlines of Logic," the present writer lias 
given reasons for considering the word no (as in no man) 
an article. 

That the, in expressions like all the more, all the bet- 
ter, &c., is no articb, has already been shown. 



DIMINUTIVES AND AUGMENTATIVES. 197 



CHAPTER XV. 



DIMINUTIVES, AUGMENTATIVE?, AND PATRONYMICS. 

§ 268. Compared with the words lamh^ man^ and 
hill^ the works lambkin^ mannikin, and hillock convey 
the idea of comparative smallness or diminution. Now, 
as the word hillock = a little hill differs inform from hill, 
we have in English a series of diminutive forms, or di- 
minutives. 

The English diminutives may be arranged according 
to a variety of principles. Amongst others : 

1. According to their form. — The word hillock is de- 
rived from hill, by the addition of a syllable. The word 
tip is derived from top, by the change of a vowel. 

2. According to their meaning. — In the word hillock 
there is the simple expression of comparative smallness 
in size. In the word doggie for dog, lassie for lass, the 
addition of the -ie makes the word not so much a dimi- 
nutive as a term of tenderness or endearment. The 
idea of smallness, accompanied, perhaps, with that of 
neatness, generally carries with it the idea of approba- 
tion ; hence, the word clean in English, means, in Ger- 
man, little = kleine. The feeling of protection which is 
extended to small objects engenders the notion of endear- 
ment. 

§ 269. The Greek word iielcocns (meiosis) means dimi- 
nution ; the Greek word vTroKopca/jLa {hypokorisma) means 



198 DIMINUTIVES, AUGMENTATIYE3. 

an endearing expression. Hence we get names for tlie 
two kinds of diminiitiyes ; viz., tlie term ineiotic for tlie 
true diminutives, and the term hypocoristic for the di- 
minutives of endearment. 

3. According to their historical origin. The syllable 
-ock, as in hillock, is of Anglo-Saxon and Gothic origin. 
The -et, as in lancet, is of French and classical origin. 

4. According as they affect proper names, or com- 
mon names. — Hawkin, Perkin, Wilkin, &c. In these 
words we have the diminutives of Hal, Peter, Will, &c. 

§ 2T0. The diminutive forms of Gothic origin are the 
first to be considered. 

1. Those formed hy a change of vowel. — Tip, from 
top. The relation of the feminine to the masculine is 
allied to the ideas conveyed by many diminutives. Hence 
in the word kit, from cat, it is doubtful whether there be 
meant a female cat or a little cat. Kid is a diminutive 
form of goat. 

2. Those formed hy the addition of a letter or letters. 
—Of the diminutive characteristics thus formed the com- 
monest, beginning from the simpler forms, are 

le. — Almost peculiar to the Lowland Scotch ; as dad- 
die, lassie, Qninnie, icifie, ?7tousie, doggie, boatie, &c. 

Ock. — Bullock, hillock. 

Kin. — Lambkin, mannikin, ladikin, &c. As is seen 
above, common in proper names. 

En. — Chicken, kitten, from cock, cat. The notion of 
diminution, if indeed that be the notion originally con- 
veyed, lies not in the -en, but in the vowel. In the word 
chicken, from cock, observe the effect of the small vowel 
on the c. 

The "consideration of words like duckling, and goslings 
is purposely deferred. 

The chief diminutive of classical origin is — 



AND PATEONYMICS. 199 

Et^ as in truinpet^ lancet^ 'pocket ; the word jjock^ as 
m meal-pock = a Tneal-bag; heing found in tlie Scottish. 
From the French -ette, as in caissette, pouletto. 

The forms -re/, as in cockerel, picker eL and -let, as in 
streamlet, require a separate consideration. The first has 
nothing to do with the Itahan forms acquerella and coser- 
ella — themselves, perhaps, of Gothic, rather than of clas- 
sical origin. 

In the Old High-German there are a multitude of di- 
minutive forms in -el ; as oiiga = an eye, ougili = a little 
eye ; lied = a song; liedel = a little song. This indicates 
the nature of words like cockerel. 

Even in English the diminutive power of -el can be 
traced in the following words : — 

Soare = a deer in its third year. Sor-rel — a deer in its 
second year. — See " Love's Labour Lost," with the note. 

Tiercel = a small sort of hawk, one-third less {tierce) 
than the common kind. 

Kantle = small corner, from cant = a corner. — " Hen- 
ry lY." 

Hurdle; in Dutch horde; German, hurde. Hord- 
ing, without the -I, is used in an allied sense by builders 
in English. 

In the words in point we must assume an earlier form, 
cocker and piker, to which the diminutive form -el is 
affixed. If this be true, we have, in English, repre- 
sentatives of the diminutive form -el so common in the 
High Germanic dialects. Wolfer = a wolf, hunker = a 
haunch, flitcher = a flitch, teaTner = a tea7n, fresher = a 
frog, — these are north country forms of the present' 
English. 

The termination -let, as in streamlet, seems to be 
double, and to consist of the Gothic diminutive -I, and the 
French diminutive -t. 



200 DIMIXUTIYES, AUGMENTATIYES, 

§271. Augmentatives. — Compared witli capello-=-a 
haty the Italian word capellone = a great hat, is an aug- 
mentative. The augmentative forms, pre-eminently com- 
mon in the Italian language, often carry with them a de- 
preciating sense. 

The termination -rd (in Old High German, -hart\ as 
in drunkard^ braggart, laggard, stinkard, carries with 
it this idea of depreciation. In buzzard, and reynard, 
the name of the fox, it is simply augmentative. In wiz- 
ard, from witch, it has the power of a masculine form. 

The termination -rd, taken from the Gothic, appears 
in the modern languages of classical origin : French, vie- 
illard; Spanish, codardo. From these we get, at second- 
hand, the word coward. 

The word sweetheart is a derived word of this sort, 
rather than a compound word ; since in Old High Ger- 
man and Middle High German, we have the correspond- 
ing form liebhart. Now the form for heart is in German 
not hart, but herz. 

Words like braggadocio, trombone, balloon, being 
words of foreign origin, prove nothing as to the further 
existence of augmentative forms in English. 

§ 272. — Patronymics. — In the Greek language the 
notion of lineal descent, in other words, the relation of the 
son to the father, is expressed by a particular termination; 
as IIr)\6v<i {Peleus), TlrfKeihr]^ {Peleidces), the son of Pe- 
leus. It is very evident that this mode of expression is 
very different from either the English form Johnson = the 
son of John, or the Gaelic MacDonald = the son of Do- 
nald. In these last-named words, the words son and Mac 
mean the same thing ; so that Johnson and MacDonald 
are not derived but compound words. This Greek way 
of expressing descent is peculiar, and the words wherein 
it occurs are classed together by the peculiar name 



AND PATRONYMICS. 201 

'patronymic ; from patcsr = a father^ and onoma = a 
name. 

Is there anything in English corresponding to the 
Greek patronymics ? 

Not in the present English ? There was, however, in 
the Anglo-Saxon. 

In the Anglo-Saxon, the terminations -ing is as truly 
patronymic as -Ihrj^ in Greek. In the Bible-translation 
the son of Elisha is called Elising. In the Anglo-Sax- 
on Chronicle occur such genealogies as the following : — 
Ida wees Eopping, Eoppa Esing, Esa Inging, Ing a 
Angenviting, Angenvit Alocing, Aloe Beonocing, Beo- 
noc Brandings Brand BceldcBgiyig^ Bceldceg Vddeniiig, 
V6den Frvtowuljing^ Frvt>owulf Finning, Finn God- 
ivulfing, Godwidf Geating = Ida was the son of Eoppa, 
Eoppa of Esa, Esa of Inga, Inga of Angenvit, Angenvit 
of Aloe, Aloe of Beonoc, Beonoc of Brand, Brand of Bagl- 
dseg, Bseldseg of Woden, Woden of Fri^owulf, Fri^owulf 
of Einn, Einn of Godwulf, Godwulf of Geat. — In Greek, 
"I8a rjv ^Eo7T7r€LB7]<;, "EoirTra ^HaelSr)^, "Hera ^Iy<y6l8r]<^t 
"Iryrya 'Ayj€vcf>LT€LB7]^, &c. In thc plural number these 
forms denote the race of; as Scyldingas = the JScyldifigSj 
or the race of fScyld, &c. Edgar Atheling means Edgar 
of the race of the nobles. 



10^ 



202 GENTILE rOPvMS. 



CHAPTER XYI. 



GENTILE FORMS. 



§ 273. The only -^ord in the present English that re- 
quires explanation is the name of the principality Wales. 

1. The form is plural, hoTrever much the meaning 
may be singular ; so that the -s in Wales is the -s in 
fathers, &c. 

2. It has grown out of the Anglo-Saxon from wealhas 
= foreigners, from wealh = a foreigner, the name by 
which the Welsh are spoken of by the Germans of Eng- 
land, just as the Italians are called Welsh by the Ger- 
mans of Germany ; and just as wal-nuts = foreign nuts, 
or nuces Gallice. Welsh = weall-isc == foreign, and is a 
derived adjective. 

3. The transfer of the name of the people inhabiting 
a certain country to the country so inhabited, was one of 
the commonest processes in both Anglo-Saxon and Old 
Endish. 



CONNEXION BETWEEN NOUN AND VERB. 203 



CHAPTER XVII. 



ON THE CONNEXION BETWEEN THE NOUN AND VERB, AND ON 
THE INFLECTION OF THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 

§ 274. In order to understand clearly the use of the 
so-called infinitive mood in English, it is necessary to bear 
in mind two facts, one a matter of logic^ the other a mat- 
ter of history. 

In the way of logic, the difference between a noun and 
a verb is less marked than it is in the way of grammar. 

Grammatically, the contrast is considerable. The in- 
flection of nouns expresses the ideas of sex as denoted by 
gender, and of relation in place as denoted by cases. That 
of verbs rarely expresses sex, and never relations in place. 
On the other hand, however, it expresses what no noun 
ever does or can express ; e. g., the relation of the agency 
to the individual speaking, by means of person ; the time 
in which acts take place, by means of teiise ; and the con- 
ditions of their occurrence, by means of ?nood. 

The idea of number is the only one that, on a super- 
ficial view, is common to these two important parts of 
speech. 

§ 2T5. Logically, however, the contrast is inconsidera- 
bly. A noun denotes an object of which either the senses 
or the intellect can take cognizance, and a verb does no 
more. To move =^ motion, to rise = rising, to err^= 
^rror, to forgive == forgiveiiess. The only difference be- 
tween the two parts of speech is this, that, whereas a noun 



204 COXXEXION BETWEEN NOUN AND VEEB. 

may express any -object TvliateYer, verbs can only express 
those objects -^bicli consist in an action. And it is this 
superadded idea of action tbat superadds to tlie verb tbe 
phenomena of tense, mood, person, and voice ; in other 
words, the phenomena of conjugation. 

§ 276. A noun is a word capable of declension only. 
A verb is a word capable of declension and conjugation 
also. The fact of verbs being declined as well as conjugat- 
ed must be remembered. The participle ha^ the declen- 
sion of a noun adjective, the infinitive mood the declension 
of a noun substantive. Gerunds and supines, in lan- 
guages where they occur, are only names for certain 
cases of the verb. 

§ 2T7. Although in all languages the verb is equally 
capable of declension, it is not equally declined. The 
Greeks, for instance, used forms like 



Tov(j)^oue7v = invidice. 
iv T^ (p^ovelv = in invidia. 

§ 2T8. Returning, however, to the illustration of the 
substantival character of the so-called infinitive mood, we 
may easily see — 

a. That the name of any action may be used without 
any mention of the agent. Thus, we may speak of the 
simple fact of walking or moving, independently of any 
specification of the walker or mover. 

p. That, when actions are spoken of thus indefinitely, 
the idea of either person or number has no place in the 
conception ; from which it follows that the so-called infini- 
tive mood must be at once impersonal, and without the dis- 
tinction of singular, dual, and plural. 

7. That, nevertheless, the ideas of time and relation 
m space have place in the conception. We can think of 



CONNEXION BETWEEN NOUN AND VERB. 205 

a person being i?i the act of striking a bloio, of his having 
been in the act of striking a bloiv, or of his being about to 
be in the act of striking a bloiu. We can also think of a 
person being in the act of doing a good action^ or of his 
being /rom the act of doing a good action. 

§ 279. This has been written to show that verbs of 
languages in general are as naturally declinable as nouns. 
What follows will show that the verbs of the Gothic 
languages in particular were actually declined, and that 
fragments of this declension remain in the present English. 

The inflection of the verb in its impersonal (or in- 
finitive state) consisted, in its fullest form, of three cases, 
a nominative (or accusative), a dative, and a genitive. 
The genitive is put last, because its occurrence in the 
Gothic languages is the least constant. 

In Anglo-Saxon the nominative (or accusative) ended 
m -a?^, with a single n. 



Lufian 


= 


to love 


= 


amare. 


Bsernan 


= 


to hum 


= 


urere. 


SyUan 


= 


to give 


= 


dare. 



In Anglo-Saxon the dative of the infinitive verb ended 
m -nne. and was preceded by the preposition to. 

To lufienne = ad amandum. 
To bsernenne = ad urendum 
To syllanne = ad dandum. 

The genitive, ending in -es, occurs only in Old High 
G erman and Modern High German, pldsannes^ loeinnenes. 

§ 280. With these preliminaries we can take a clear 
view of the English infinitives. They exist under two 
forms, and are referable to a double origin. 

1. The independent form. — This is used after the 
words can, may, shall, will, and some others, as, / can 
speak, I may go, I shall come, I will move. Here there 



206 CONNEXION BETWEEN NOUN AND VERB. 

is no preposition, and tlie origin of tlie infinitive is from 
tlie form in -an. 

2. The prepositional form. — This is used after the 
majority of English verbs, as, I wish to speak, I ?nean to 
go, I intend to come, I determine to move. Here we 
have the preposition to and the origin of the infinitive is 
from the form ~nne. 

§ 281. Expressions like to err = error, to forgive == 
forgiveness, in lines like 

" To eiT is human, to forgive divine," 

are very remarkable. They exhibit the phenomena of a 
nominative case having grown not only out of a dative but 
out of a dative plus its governing preposition. 



DEEIVED VERBS. 



207 



CHAPTER XYIII. 



ON DERIVED VERBS, 



§ 282. Of tlie divisions of verbs into active and 
passive, transitive and intransitive, unless there be an 
accompanying change of form^ etymology takes no cog- 
nisance. The forces of the auxiliary verbs, and the 
tenses to which they are equivalent, are also points of 
syntax rather than of etymology. 

Four classes, however, of derived verbs, as opposed to 
simple^ especially deserve notice. 

I. Those ending in -en ; as soften, whiten, strengthen, 
&c. Here the -en is a derivational affix ; and not a repre- 
sentative of the Anglo-Saxon infinitive form -an (as Ivfian, 
hcernan = to love, to burn), and the Old English -en (as 
tellen, loveti). 

II, Transitive verbs derived from intransitives by a 
change of the vowel of the root. 



Primitive Intransitive Form. 


Derived Transitive Fornu 


Ri3e 


Raise. 


Lie 


Lay. 


Sit 


Set 


FaU 


... Fell. 


Drink 


Drench. 



In Anglo-Saxon these words were more mimerous than 
they are at present. 



208 



DERIVED VERBS. 



Inirans. Infinitive. 
Yrnan, to run 
Byrnan, to hum 
Drincan, to drinh 
Sincan, to sink 
Liegan, to lie 
Sittan, to sit 
Drifan, to drift 
Teallan, to fall 
"Weallan, to boil 
Fleogan, tofii/ 
Beogan, to bow 
Faran, to go 
"Wacan, to wake 



Trans. Infinitive. 
JErnan, to make to run. 
Baernan, to make to hum. 
Drencan, to drench. 
Sencan, to make to sink. 
Lecgan, to lay. 
Settan, to set. 
Dreefan, to drive. 
Pyllan, to fell. 
Wyllan, to make to boil. 
A-fligan, to put to flight 
Bigan, to bend. 
Feran, to convey. 
Weccan, to waken. 



All these intransitives form their prssterite by a change 
of vowel, as sink, sank ; all the transitives by the addition 
of d or t, as sell, seWd. 

III. Verbs derived from nouns by a change of accent ; 
as to survey, from a survey. 



Nouns. 


Verbs. 


Nouns. 


Verbs. 


A'bsent 


absent. 


Contrast 


contrast. 


A'bstract 


abstract. 


Converse 


converse. 


A'ccent 


accent 


Convert 


convert. 


A'ffix 


affix. 


Descant 


descant. 


Augment 


augment. 


Desert 


desert. 


Colleague 


colleague. 


Digest 


digest. 


Compact 


compact. 


E'ssaj 


essaj. 


Compound 


compound. 


E'xtract 


extract. 


Compress 


compress. 


Ferment 


ferment. 


Concert 


concert. 


Frequent 


frequent. 


Concrete 


concrete. 


I'mport 


import. 


Conduct 


conduct 


I'ncense 


incense. 


Confine 


confine. 


Fnsult 


insult. 


Conflict 


conflict. 


O'bject 


object. 


Conserve 


conserve. 


Perfume 


perfume. 


Consort 


consort. 


Permit 


permit. 


Contract 


contrdct. 


Prefix 


prefix. 



DEEIVED VEEBS. 



209 



Nouns. 


Verbs. 


J^ouns. 


Verbs. 


riemise 


premise. 


Record 


record. 


Presage 


presdge. 


Refuse 


refuse. 


Present 


present. 


Subject 


subject. 


Produce 


produce. 


Survey- 


survey. 


Project 


project.' 


Torment 


torm^int. 


Protest 


protest. 


Transfer 


transfer. 


Il6bel 


reb^l. 


Transport 


transport. 



Walker attributes the change of accent to the influence of 
the participial termination -ing. All words thus afi'ected 
are of foreign origin. 

lY. Verbs formed from nouns by changing a final 
sharp consonant into its corresponding flat one*; as. 



The use 
The breath 
The cloth 



to use, pronotmced uze. 

to breathe — breadhe, 

to clothe — clodha 



210 OlS THE PEESONS. 



CHAPTER XIX. 



ON THE PERSONS. 



§ 283. Compared mtli the Latin, tlie Greek, tlie 
Moeso-Gothic, and almost all tlie ancient languages, 
there is, in English, in respect to the persons of the verbs, 
but a very slight amount of inflection. This may be seen 
by comparing the English word call Tvith the Latin 
voco. 



Sing. 


Flur. 


Sing. 


Flur. 


1. Voc-o 


Yoc-amus. 


CaU 


CaU. 


2. Voc-as 


Yoc-atis. 


CaU-est 


CaU. 


3. Voc-at 


Yoc-ant 


* CaU-eth 


CaU. 



Here the Latins have different forms for each diffet' 
ent person, -whilst the English have forms for two only ; 
and even of these one {callest) is becoming obsolete. 
With the forms voc-o, YOC-amus, Yoc-atis, Yoc-ant, there is, 
in the current English, nothing correspondent. 

Iq the word am, as compared with are and ai^t, we 
hnd a sign of the first person singular. 

In the old forms tellen, weren, &c., we have a sign of 
the plural number. 

§ 284. In the Modern English, the Old English, and 
the Anglo-Saxon, the peculiarities of our personal inflec- 
tions are very great. This may be seen from the following 
tables of comparison : — 

* Or calls. 



ON THE PERSONS. 



211 





Present Tense, Indicative Mood. 




Mceso- Gothic. 




Singular. 
Plural 


\st person. 2nd person. 
Sokja Sokeis 
Sokjam Sokei]? 

Old High German. 


Zrd person. 
S6kei>— see^. 
Sokjand. 


Singular. 
Plural. 


Preunu Prennis 
Prennames Prennat 

Icelandic. 


Prennit — hum. 
Prennant. 


Singular. 
Plural. 


Kalla Kallar 
KoUum KaUi> 

Old Saxon. 


Kaliar — call. 
Kalla. 


Singular. 
Plural. 


Sokju Sokis 
Sokjad Sokjad 


Sokid— «ee^. 
Sokjad. 


Singular. 
Plural. 


Anglo-Saxon. 

Lufige Lufast 
Lufia^ LufiaS 

Old English. 


LufaS. 
LufiaS. 


Singulat 
Plural. 


Love Lovest 
Loven Loven 

Modern English. 


Loveth. 
Loven. 


Singular. 
Plural. 


Love Lovest 
Love Love 


Loveth (or Loves). 
Love. 



§ 285. Herein remark ; 1. the Anglo-Saxon addition 
of t in tlie second person singular ; 2. the identity in form 
of the three persons of the plural number ; 3. the change 
of -a^ into -en in the Old English plural ; 4. the total 
absence of plural forms in the Modern English ; 5. the 
change of the th into 5, in loveth and loves. These are 
points bearing especially upon the history of the English 



212 OIT THE PERSONS. 

persons. The following points indicate a more general 
question : 

1. The full form prennames in the ne^Yer Old High Ger- 
man, as compared with sokjarn in the old Moeso-Gothic. 

2. The appearance of the r in Icelandic. 

3. The difference between the Old Saxon and the 
Anglo-Saxon in the second person singular; the final t 
being absent in Old Saxon. 

§ 286. The person in -t. — The forms art, wast, wert, 
shalt, wilt, or ar-t, was-t, wer-t, shal-t, wil-t, are re- 
markable. Here the second person singular ends, not in 
-st, but in t. The reason for this is to be sought in the 
Moeso-Gothic and the Icelandic. 

In those languages the form of the person changes 
with the tense, and the second singular of the praeterite 
tense of one conjugation is, not -s, but -t ; as Moeso- 
Gothic, svdr = I swore, sv6rt = thou swarest, graip = I 
griped, graipt ^thou gripedst ; Icelandic, hrannt^thoii 
hurnest, gaft = thou gavest. In the same languages ten 
verbs are conjugated like prseterites. Of these, in each 
language, skal is one. 



Singular. 




Moeso- Gothic 

Dual. 


Plural. 


1. Skal 




Skulu 


Skulum. 


2 Skalt 




Skuluts 


Skulu>. 


3. SkaU 




Skuluts 

Icelandic. 


Skulun. 


Singular. 




Plural. 


1. 


SkaU 




Skulum. 


2. 


Skalt 




SkuluS. 


3. 


Skal 




Skulu. 



§ 287. Thou spakest, thou hrakest, thou sungest. 



-ii 



* Thou sangest, thou drSinJcesf, &c. — For a reason given in the sequel, 
these forms are less exceptionable than sungest, drnnlcest, &c. 



ON THE PEESONS. 213 

In these forms there is a slight though natural anomaly. 
They belong to the class of verbs which form their prae- 
terite by changing the vowel of the present; as sing, 
sang-, (fee. Now, all words of this sort in Anglo-Saxon 
formed their second singular praeterite, not in -st, but in 
-e ; as ]>ufunde= thoufoundest, \u sunge= thou suiigest. 
The English termination is derived from the present. 
Observe that this applies only to the praeterites formed by 
changing the vowel. Thou loved^st is Anglo-Saxon as 
well as English, viz., ^d lufodest. 

§ 288. In the northern dialects of the Anglo-Saxon 
the -^ of plurals like lujia^ = we love becomes -s. In the 
Scottish this change was still more prevalent : 

The Scottes come that to this day 
Havys and Scotland haldyn ay. 

Wintoun, 11, 9, 73. 

James I. of England ends nearly all his plurals in -s. 



214 NUMBERS OF VERBS. 



CHAPTER XX. 



ON THE NUMBERS OF VERBS. 



§ 289. As compared witli tlie present plural forms, i^^e 
love^ ye love, they love, the Anglo-Saxons had. the truly 
plural forms, we lufia^, ge lufia^, hi lujia^. The Old 
English also had a true plural inflection tve loven, ye loven, 
they loven. The present English wants both the form in 
-euj and the form in a^. In other words, the Anglo- 
Saxon and the Old English have a plural personal char- 
acteristic, whilst the Modern English has nothing to cor- 
respond with it. 

§ 290. In the forms liif-ia'^, and lov-eji, the change 
from singular to plural is made by adding a syllable ; but 
there is no reason against the inflection running thus — 
/ love, thou lovest, he loves ; we lave, ye lave, they lave ; 
in other words, there is no reason against the vowel of the 
root being changed, just as is the case with the form 
speak, spoke ; fall, fell. 

Now, in Anglo-Saxon, with a great number of verbs 
such a plural inflection not only actually takes place, but 
takes place mbst regularly. It takes place, however, in 
the past tense only. And this is the case in all the 
Gothic languages as well as in Anglo-Saxon. Amongst 
the rest, in — 



NUMBEES OF VERBS. 



215 



Moeso- Gothic. 



Skain, I shone ; skinum, we shone. 
Smait, I smote ; smitum, we smote. 
Kausj / chose ; kusum, we chose. 
Laug, Hied; lugum, we lied. 



Grab, I gave; gebum, we gave. 
At, / ete ; etum, we ete. 
Stal, I stole ; stelum, we stole. 
Qvam, I came ; qvemum, we came. 



Anglo-Saxon. 



Arn, / ran ; urnon, we run. 

Ongan, I began ; ongunuon, we he- 
gun. 

Spaa, / span ; spunuou, we spun. 

Sang, I sang ; sungon, we sung. 

Swang, / swang ; swangon, we 
swung. 



Dranc, / drank ; druncon, we drunk. 
Sane, I sank ; suncon, we sunk. 
Sprang, / sprang; sprungon, we 

sprung. 
Swam, / swam ; swummon, we 

swum. 
Rang, I rang ; rungon, loe rung. 



From these examples tlie reader has himself drawn 
his inference ; viz. that words like 



Began, begun. 
Han, run. 

Span, spun. 
Sang, sung. 
Swang, swung. 
Sprang, spricng. 



Sank, sunk. 
Swam, swum. 
Bang, rung. 
Bat, bit. 
Smote, smit. 
Drank, drunk, (be, 



generally called double forms of the past tense, were 
originally different 7iiimbers of the same tense., the forms 
in a, as swa?n, being singular, and the forms in w, as 
sivu7n, plural. 



216 ON MOODS. 



CHAPTER XXI. 



ox MOODS. 



§ 291. The Anglo-Saxon iafinitive has already been 
considered. 

Between the second plural imperative, and the second 
plural indicatiTC; speak ye. and ye speak, there is no dif- 
ference of form. 

Between the second singular imperative speak, and 
the second singular indicativCj speakest, there is a differ- 
ence in form. 

Still, as the imperative form speak is distinguished 
from the indicative form speakest bj the negation of a 
character rather than by the possession of one, it cannot 
be said that there is in English any imperative mood. 

§ 292. If he speak, as opposed to if he speaks, is cha- 
racterized by a negative sign only, and consequently is no 
true example of a subjunctive. Be, as opposed to am, in 
the sentence if it he so, is a fresh word used in a limited 
sense, and consequently no true example of a subjunctive. 
It is a different word altogether, and is only the subjunc- 
tive of am, in the way puss is the vocative of cat. 

The only true subjunctive inflection in the English 
language is that of were and ivert, as opposed to the indi- 
cative forms was and wast. 



Indicative. 
Singular. 

1. I was. 

2. Thou wast. 

3. He was. 



Suhjunci've. 
Singular. Plural. 

If I were. If we were. 

If thou wei-t. K ye wera 
If he were. If they wera 



TENSES IN GENERAL. 217 



CHAPTER XXII. 



ON TENSBS IN GENERAL. 



§ 293. The nature of tenses in general is best exhi- 
bited by reference to the Greek ; since in that language 
they are more numerous, and more strongly marked than 
elsewhere. 

/ strike, I struck, — Of these words, the first implies 
an action taking place at the time of speaking, the second 
marks an action that has already taken place. 

These two notions of present and of past time, being 
expressed by a change of form, are true tenses. If there 
were no change of form, there would be no change of 
tense. They are the only true tenses in our language. 
In / was heating, I have beaten, I had beaten, and / 
shall beat, a difference of time is expressed ; but as it is 
expressed by a combination of words, and not 6y a 
change of form, no true tenses are constituted. 

§ 294. In Greek the case is different. Tvtttco {typto) 
= / beat ; ervinov {etypton) = I was beating ; rvyjrco 
(typs6)=I shall beat ; erv^jra (etypsa) = / beat ; rerv^a 
{tetyfa) — / have beaten ; irerixjieLv {etetyfein) = / had 
beaten. In these words we have, of the same mood, the 
same voice, and the same conjugation, six different tenses ; 
whereas, in English, there are but two. The forms 
reTV(j)a and ervyjra are so strongly marked, that we recog- 
nise them wheresoever they occur. The first is formed 
by a reduplication of the initial r, and, consequently, may 
- 11 



218 TEXSES IX GEXERAL. 

be called tlie rednplicate form. As a tense it is called 
the perfect. In the form eVu-v^a an e is prefixed, and an o 
is added. In the allied language of Italy the e disappears, 
whilst the a (5) remains. "Erv^lra is said to be an aorist 
tense. JSa^lpsi is to scriho as ervTraa is to tutttco. 

§ 295. Now in the Latin language a confusion takes 
place between these two tenses. Both forms exist. They 
are used, however, indiscriminately. The aorist form has, 
besides its own, the sense of the perfect. The perfect has, 
besides its own, the sense of the aorist. In the follo^ying 
pair of quotations, vixi, the aorist form, is translated / 
have lived, while tetigit, the perfect form, is translated he 
touched. 

Vixi, et quern dederat cursum Fortuna peregi ; 

Et nunc magna mei sub terras ibis imago. — ^n. iv. 

Ut primum alatis tetigit magalia plantis. — JEn. iy. 

§ 296. When a difference of form has ceased to ex- 
press a difference of meaning, it has become superfluous. 
This is the case with the two forms in question. One of 
them may be dispensed with ; and the consequence is, 
that, although in the Latin language both the perfect and 
the aorist forms are found, they are, with few exceptions, 
ncA'er found in the same word. Wherever there is the 
perfect, the aorist is wanting, and vice versa. The two 
ideas / have struck and / struck are merged into the no- 
tion of past time in general, and are expressed by one of 
two forms, sometimes by that of the Greek perfect, and 
sometimes by that of the Greek aorist. On account of 
this the grammarians have cut down the number of Latin 
tenses to five ; forms like cucurri and vixi being dealt 
with as one and the same tense. The true view is, that in 
ciirro the aorist form is replaced by the perfect, and in 
vixi the perfect form is replaced by the aorist. 



TENSES IN GENERAL. 



219 



§ 297. In the presejit Englisli there is no undoubted 
perfect or reduplicate form. The form moved corresponds 
in meaning not with rervcpa and momordi^ but with ervy^a 
and vixi. Its sense is that of ervyjra, and not that of re- 
Tucfia. The notion given by rervcj^a we express by the 
circumlocution / have beaten. We have no such form as 
heheat or inemove. In the Moeso-Gothic, however, there was 
a true reduplicate form ; in other words, a perfect tense as 
well as an aorist. It is by the possession of this form 
that the verbs of the first six conjugations are character- 
ized. 

Englissh. 
I have folded, or I folded. 
I have fed, or I fed. 
I have hanged, or / hanged. 
I have called, or / called. 
I have played, or 1 played. 
I have run, or / ran. 
I have slept, or / slept. 
I have laughed, or I laught. 
I have scion, or I sowed. 
I have wept, or / wept. 
I have touched, or / touched. 

In Moeso-Gothic, as in Latin, the perfect forms have, 
besides their own, an aorist sense, and vice versa. 

In Moeso-Gothic, as in Latin, few (if any) words are 
found in both forms. 

In Moeso-Gothic, as in Latin, the two forms are dealt 
with as a single tense ; Idilo being called the praeterite of 
Mia, and svdr the prseterite of svara. The true view, 
however, is that in Moeso-Gothic, as in Latin, there are 
two past tenses, each having a certain latitude of meaning, 
and each, in certain words, replacing the other. 

The reduplicate form, in other words, the perfect tense, 
is current in none of the Gothic languages except the 



Moeso-Gothic. 


English. 


Mce.s> Gothic. 


1st 


Fal>a, 


I fold . 


raifal>, 




Halda, 


I feed . 


Haihald, 




Haha, 


I hang . 


Haihah, 


2nd. 


Haita, 


I call . 


Haihait, 




Laika, 


I play . 


Lailaik, 


3rd. 


Hlaupa, 


I run 


Hlailaup, 


4tL 


Slepa, 


I sleep . 


Saizlep, 


5th. 


Laia, 


I laugh 


Lailo, 




Saija, 


I soio 


Saiso, 


6 th. 


Greta, 


I weep 


Gaigrot, 




Teka, 


I touch 


Taitok, 



220 TENSES IN GENERAL. 

Moe SO- Gothic. A trace of it is said to be found in tlie 
Anglo-Saxon of the seventh century in the word heht^ 
■svhich is considered to be he-ht. the Moeso-Gothic haAhdit^ 
vocavi. Did from do is also considered to be a redupli- 
cate form. 

§ 298. In the English language the tense correspond- 
incr -^vith the Greek aorist and the Latin forms like vixi. is 
formed after two mod^s ; 1, as in fellj sang, and took^ 
from fall. sing, and take, by changing the YOTvel of the 
present : 2. as in moved and icept, from move and iceep^ 
by the addition of -d or -t ; the -d or -t not being found 
in the original -^ord, but being a fresh element added to it. 
In forms, on the contrary, hke sang and fell, no addition 
being made, no new element appears. The vowel, indeed, 
is changed, but nothing is ■ added. Verbs, then, of the 
first sort, may be said to form their prseterites out of 
themselves ; whilst verbs of the second sort require some- 
thing from without. To speak in a metaphor, words like 
sa?7g and fell are comparatively independent. Be this as 
it may, the German grammarians call the tenses formed 
by a change of vowel the strong tenses, the strong verbs, 
the strong conjugation, or the strong order ; and those 
formed by the addition of d or t, the weak tenses, the 
weak verbs, the weak conjugation, or the iceak order. 
Bound, spoke, gave, lay, (fcc, are strong; moved, fa- 
voured, instructed, &c.. are weak. 



THE STRONG- TENSES. 221 



CHAPTER XXIII. 



THE STRONG TENSES. 



§ 299. The strong praeterites are formed from the 
present by changing the vowel, as sing, sang : speak, 
spoke 

In Anglo-Saxon, several prasterites change, in their 
plural, the vowel of their singular ; as 



Ic sang, I sang. 

]>u sunge, thou srcngest. 

He sang, he sang. 



We swngon, we sung. 
Ge SMDgon, ye sung. 
Hi SMDgou, they sung. 



The bearing of this fact upon the prseterites has al- 
ready been indicated. In a great number of w^ords we 
have a double form, as ran and run, sang and sung, 
drank and drunk, &c. One of these forms is derived 
from the singular, and the other from the plural. 

In cases where but one form is preserved, that form is 
not necessarily the singular ; indeed, it is often the plural ; 
— e. g., Ic fand, I found, we fwndon, we found, are the 
Anglo-Saxon forms. Now the present word /ozmc? comes, 
not fiy^m the singular fand, but from the plural fundon ; 
although in the Lowland Scotch dialect and in the old 
writers, the singular form occurs ; 

Donald Caird finds orra things, 

Where Allan Gregor/anc? the tings. — Scott. 



222 



THE STEOXG TEXSES. 



§ 300. Tlie verbs wherein the double form of the 
present preterite is thus explained; fall into two 
classes. 

1. In the first class, the Anglo-Saxon forms were a in 
the singular, and i in the plural ; as — 



Sing. 
Scean 
Aras 

Smat 



Plur. 
Scinon {we shone). 
Alison {ice arose). 
Smiton {we emote). 



This accounts foi 



'^resent. 


Prcd. from Sing. form. 


Frat. 


from Plur. 


Rise 




Eose 






*Ei3. 


Smite 




Smote 






Smit. 


Eide 




Eode 






*Eid 


Sti-ide 




Strode 






Strid. 


SUde 




*Slode 






SHd 


Chide 




*Chode 






Chid. 


Drive 




Drove 






*DriY 


Thrive 




Throve 






Thriv. 


Write 




"^rote 






Writ 


Slit 




-Slat 






snt. 


Bite 




*Bat 






Bit 



2. In the second class, the Anglo-Saxon forms were a 
in the singular, and n in the plural, as — 



Sing 
Band 
Fand 
Grand 

TTand 



Plural. 
Bundon {we bound). 
Fundon {we found), ^ 
Grundon {we ground). 

Wundon {xce wound). 



* The forms marked thus " are either obsolete or provincial 



THE STKONG TENSES. 



223 



This accounts for- 



Present 


Prcct.frora Sing. form. 


Prcctfrom PI form. 


Swim 


Swam 


Swum. 


Begia 


Began 


Begun. 


Spia 


*Span 


Spun. 


Win 


*Wan 


fWon. 


Sing 


San- 


Sung. 


Swing 


*Swang 


Swung. 


Spring 


Sprang 


Sprung, 


Sting 


*Stang 


Stung. 


Ring 


Rang 


Rung. 


Wring 


•^Wrang 


Wrung. 


Fling 


Flang 


Flung. 


*Hing 


Hang 


Hung. 


String 


*Strang 


Strung. 


Sink 


Sank 


Sunk. 


Drink 


Drank 


Drunk. 


Shrink 


Shrank 


Shrunk. 


Stink 


*St3nk 


Stunk. 


Melt 


*Molt 


— 


Help 


*Holp 


— 


Delve 


*Dolv 


— 


Stick 


*Stack 


Stuck. 


Rua 


Ran 


Run. 


Burst 


Brast 


Burst. 


Bind 


Band 


Bound. 


Find 


*Fand 


Found. 



§ 301. The following double prseterites are differently 
explained. The primary one often (but not always) is 
from th() Anglo-Saxon participle^ the secondary from the 
Anglo-Saxon prcBterite. 



Present 

Cleave 

Steal 



Primary Prceterite. 
Clove 
Stole 



Secondary Pra;terite. 
*Clave. 
*Stale. 



* Obsolete. 



f Sounded vmn. 



224 



THE STRONG TENSES, 



Present. 


Primary Prceterite. Secondary Prceterite. 


Speak 




Spok 


e 


Spake. 


Swear 




Swore 


Sware. 


Bear 




Bore 




Bare 




Tear 




Tore 




*Tarc 


. 


Wear 




Wore 


*Ware. 


Break 




Broke 


Brake. 


Get 




Got 




*Gat. 




Tread 




Trod 




Trac 


L 


Bid 




Bade 




Bid. 




Eat 




Ate 




Ete. 




§ 302. The following verbs have only a single fori 


for the praeterite,- 


— 










Present. 


Prceterite. 


Present. 




Prceterite, 


Fall 


FeU. 




Forsake 




Forsook. 


Befall 


Befell. 




Eat 




Ate. 


Hold 


Held. 




Give 




Gave. 


Dra-w 


Drew. 




Wake 




Woke. 


Slay 


Slew. 




Grave 




Grove. 


Fly 


Flew. 




Shape 




Shope. 


Blow 


Blew. 




Strike 




Struck. 


Crow 


Crew. 




Shine 




Shone. 


Know 


Knew. 




Abide 




Abode. 


Grow 


Grew. 




Strive 




Strove. 


Throw 


Threw 




Climb 




Clomb. 


Let 


Let. 




Hide 




Hid. 


Beat 


Beat. 




Dig 




Dug. 


Come 


Came. 




CUng 




Clung. 


Heave 


Hove. 




Swell 




SwoU. 


"Weave 


Wove. 




Grind 




Ground. 


Freeze 


Froze. 




Wind 




Wound. 


Shear 


Shore. 




Choose 




Chose. 




QuoiL 




Stand 




Stood. 


Seethe 


Sod. 




Lie 




Lay. 


Shake 


Shook. 




See 




Saw. 


Take 


Took. 












* Ob 


soleta 





THE STRONG TENS|:S. 225 

§ 303. An arrangement of the preceding verbs into 
classes, according to the change of vowel, is by no means 
difficult, even in the present stage of the English lan- 
guage. Tn the Anglo-Saxon, it was easier still. It is 
also easier in the provincial dialects, than in the literary 
English. Thus, when 

Break is pronout-ced BreeTc, 
Bear — Beer, 

Tear — Teer, 

Swear — Sweer, 

Wear — Weer, 

as they actually are by many speakers, they come in the 
same class with, — 

Speak pronounced Speek, 
Cleave — Cleeve, 

and form their praeterite by means of a similar change^ 
i. e., by changing the sound of the ee in feet (spelt ea) 
into that of the a in fate ; viewed thus, the irregularity is 
less than it appears to be at first sight. 

Again, tread is pronounced tredd, but many provin- 
cial speakers say treed, and so said the Anglo-Saxons, 
whose form Avas ic trede == / tread. Their prseterite was 
treed. This again subtracts from the apparent irre- 
gularity. 

Instances of this kind may be multiplied ; the whole 
question, however, of the conjugation of the strong verbs 
is best considered after the perusal of the next chapter. - 



226 THE WEAK TENSES. 



CHAPTER XXIV. 



THE WEAK TENSES. 



§ 304. The prseterite tense of the weak verbs is 
formed by the addition of -d or -t. 

If necessary, tlie syllable -ed is substituted for -d. 

The current statement that the syllable -ed^ rather 
than the letter -d is the sign of the pragterite tense, is 
true only in regard to the -written language. In stabbed, 
moved, bragged, ichizzed, judged, filled, slurred, 
slammed, shunned, barred, strewed, the e is a point of 
spelling only. In language, except in declamation, there 
is no second vowel sound. The -d comes in immediate 
contact with the final letter of the original word, and the 
number of syllables remains the same as it was before. 
We say stabd, 7ndved, bragd, &c. 

§ 305. When, however, the original word ends in -d or 
-t, as slight or brand, then, and then only is there the 
real addition of the syllable -ed ; as in slighted, branded. 

This is necessary, since the combinations slightt and 
brandd are unpronounceable. 

Whether the addition be -d or -t depends upon the 
flatness or sharpness of the preceding letter. 

After b, v, th (as in clothe), g, or z, the addition is -d. 
This is a matter of necessity. We say stabd, movd, 
clothd, braggd, whizzd, because stabt, m6vt, clotht, 
braggt, ichizzt, are unpronounceable. 

After I, m, n, r, w, y. or a vowel, the addition is also 



THE WEAK TENSES. 227 

-d. This is the habit of the English language. Filt, 
slur4, sir apt, (fcc, are as pronounceable as Jilld, slurrd, 
strayd, (fcc. It is the habit, however, of the English 
language to prefer the latter forms. 

All this, as the reader has probably observed, is 
merely the reasoning concerning the 5, in words like 
fathers, <fec., applied to another letter and to another 
part of speech. 

§ 306. The verbs of the weak conjugation fall into 
three classes. 

I. In the first there is the simple addition of -d, -t, 



or -ed. 



Serve, served. 
Cry, cried. 
Betray, betrayed. 
Expell, expelled. 
Accuse, accused. 
Instruct, instructed. 
Invite, invited. 
"Waste, •wasted- 



Dip, dipped {dipt). 
Slip, slipped {dipt). 
Step, stepped {slept). 
Look, looked {looJct). 
Pluck, plucked {plucTct). 
Toss, tossed {tost). 
Push, pushed {pusht). 
Confess, confessed {confest.) 



To this class belong the greater part of the weak 
verbs and all verbs of foreign origin. 

§ 307. II. In the second class, besides the addition of 
•4 or -d, the vowel is shortened, 



Present. 




Prceterite. 


Creep 




Crept. 


Keep 




Kept. 


Sleep 


. 


Slept. 


Sweep 




Swept. 


Weep 




Wept. 


Lose 




Lost. 


Mean 


* Pronounced ment. 


J^Meant. 



228 THE WEAK TENSES. 

Here tlie final consonant is -t. 

Present Frceterite 
Mee Yled. 

Hear *Heard. 

Shoe Shod. 

Sav fSaed. 

Here the final consonant is -d. 

§ 308. III. In the second class the vowel of the pre- 
sent tense was shortened in the prseterite. In the third 
class it is changed. 



Tell, told. 
Will, would. 



SeU, sold. 
ShaU, should. 



To this class belong the remarkable prseterites of the 
verbs seek, beseech, catch, teach, bring, think, and buy, 
viz., sought, besought, caught, taught, brought, thought, 
and bought. In all these, the final consonant is either g 
or k, or else a sound allied to those mutes. When the 
tendency of the&e sounds to become h and y, as well as 
to undergo farther changes, is remembered, the forms in 
point cease to seem anomalous. In wrought, from work, 
there is a transposition. In laid and said the present 
forms make a show of regularity which they have not. 
The true original forms should be legde and scegde, the 
infinitives being lecgan, secgan. In these words the i 
represents the semivowel y, into which the original g was 
changed. The Anglo-Saxon forms of the other words are 
as follows : — 

Bjcan, bohte. I Bringan, brohte. 

Secan, sohte. I ]7eecan, ])6hte. 

Wyrcan, worhte. 



* Pronounced Aerd f Pronounced 



THE WEAK TENSES. 229 

§ 309. Out of the three classes into which the weak 
verbs in Anglo-Saxon are divided, only one takes a 
vowel before the d or t. The other two add the syllables 
-te or -o?e, to the last letter of the original word. The 
vowel that, in one out of the three Anglo-Saxon classes, 
precedes d is o. Thus we have lujian^ liifode ; clypian, 
clypode. In the other two classes the forms are re- 
spectively bcema7i, hcernde ; and tellan, tealde, lio voAvel 
being found. The participle, however, as stated above, 
ended, not in -de or -te, but in -d or -t ; and in two out 
of the three classes it was preceded by a vowel ; the 
vowel being e, — gelufod, hcerned, geteald. Now in those 
conjugations where no vowel preceded the d of the prse- 
terite, and w^here the original word ended in -d or -t, a 
difficulty, which has already been indicated, arose. To 
add the sign of the praeterite to a word like eard-ian {to 
dwell) was an easy matter, inasmuch as eardian was a 
word belonging to the first class, and in the first class the 
prseterite was formed in -ode. Here the vowel o kept the 
two c?'s from coming in contact. "With words, however, 
like metan and sendan, this was not the case. Here no 
vowel intervened ; so that the natural prasterite forms 
were met-te, send-de, combinations wherein one of the 
letters ran every chance of being dropped in the pronunci- 
ation. Hence, with the exception of the verbs in the first 
class, words ending in -d or -t in the root admitted no ad- 
ditional d ov tin the prseterite. This difficulty, existing 
in the present English as it existed in the Anglo-Saxon, 
modifies the prasterites of most words ending in -t or -d. 

§ 310. In several words there is the actual addition of 
the syllable -ed ; in other words d is separated from the 
last letter of the original word by the addition of a vowel ; 
as ended, instructed, <fcc. 

§ 811. In several words the final -d is changed into -^, 



230 THE WEAK TENSES. 

as hendj bent ; rend, rent : send, sent ; gild, gilt ; huild^ 
built ; spend, spent, &c. 

§ 312. In several words tlie yowel of the root is 
changed; ^^ feed, fed ; bleed, bled; breed, bred; meet, 
met ; speed, sped ; read, read, (fcc. Words of this last- 
named class cause occasional difficulty to the gram- 
marian. No addition is made to the root, and, in this 
circumstance, they agree with the strong verbs. More- 
over, there is a change of the vowel. In this circum- 
stance also they agree with the strong verbs. Hence 
with forms like fed and led we are in doubt as to the con- 
jugation. This doubt we have three means of settling, as 
may be shown by the word beat. 

a. By the form of the participle. — The -en in beaten 
shows that the word beat is strong. 

b. By the nature of the vowel. — The weak form of to 
beat would be bet, or beat, after the analogy of feed and 
read. By some persons the word is pronounced bet, and 
with those who do so the word is weak. 

c. By a knowledge of the older formes. — The Anglo- 
Saxon form is bedte, beot. There is no such a weak 
form as beate, bmtte. The prasterite of sendan is seiide 
weak. There is in Anglo-Saxon no such form as sand, 
strong. 

In all this we see a series of expedients for distinguish- 
ing the prseterite form from the present, when the root 
ends with the same sound with which the affix begins. 

The change from a long vowel to a short one, as in 
feed, fed, &c., can only take place where there is a long 
voiYcl to be changed. 

Where the vowels- are short, and, at the same time, 
tho word ends in -d, the -d of the present may become -t 
»ti the preterite. Such is the case with bend, bent. ■ 

When there is no long vowel to shorten, and no -d 



THE WEAK TENSES. 



231 



to change into -t^ the two tenses, of necessity, remain 
alike ; such is the case with cut^ cost, &c. 

§ 313. The following verbs form their praeterite in 
't :— 



Present 


Prcetcrite. 






Leave 


f Left 


not 


X Leaved 


Cleave 


Cleft 


— 


Cleaved 


Bereave 


Bereft 


— 


Bereaved 


Deal 


* Deak 


— 


Dealed 


Feel 


Feft 


— 


Feeled 


Dream 


f Bremt 


— 


Dreamed 


Learc 


f Lcrn^ 


- 


Learned 



§ 314. Certain so-called irregularities may now be 
noticed. — Made, had. — In these words there is nothing 
remarkable but the ejection of a consonant. The Anglo- 
Saxon forms are macode and hoifde, respectively. The 
words, however, in regard to the amount of change, are 
not upon a par. The/ in hcefde was probably sounded 
as V. Now V is a letter excessively liable to be ejected, 
which k is not. K, before it is ejected, is generally 
changed into either g or y. 

Woidd, shoidd, could. — It must not be imagined that 
could is in the same predicament with these words. In 
loill and shall the 4 is part of the original word. This 
is not the case with can. For the form coidd, see § 331. 

§ 315. Aught. — In Anglo-Saxon hhte, the praeterite 
of the present form ah, plural agon. — As late as the time 
of Elizabeth we find owe used for oiori. The present 
form oion seems to have arisen from the plural agon. 
Aught is the prseterite of the Anglo-Saxon ah ; owed of 
the English owe = deheo ; oianed of the English ow7i = 

* Pronounced delt. 

f So pronounced. 

X Pronounced leevd, clecvd, bcreevd, deeld,f€cld, dreemd, lernd. 



232 " THE WEAK TEXSES. 

possideo. The word oicn, in the expression to oiV7i to a 
thing, has a totally different origin. It comes from the 
Anglo-Saxon a?i (plural, iinnon) = I give, ox grant = 
concedo. 

§ 316. Durst. — The verb dare is both transitive and 
intransitive, ^\e can say either I dare do such a thing, 
or / dare (challenge) such a man to do it. This, in the 
present tense, is unequivocally correct. In the past the 
double power of the word dare is ambiguous ; still it is, 
to my mind at least, allowable. We can certainly say 
/ dared him to accept my challenge; and we can, 
perhaps, say / dared venture on the expedition. In this 
last sentence, however, durst is the preferable expres- 
sion. 

Kow, although dare is both transitive and intransi- 
tive, durst is only intransitive. It never agrees with 
the Latin word provoco ; only with the Latin word auedo. 
Moreover, the word durst has both a present and a past 
sense. The difficulty which it presents consists in the 
presence of the -st. letters characteristic of the second 
person singular, but here found in all the persons alike ; 
as I durst, they durst, &c. 

This has still to be satisfactorily accounted for. 

Must. — A form common to all persons, numbers, and 
tenses. That neither the -s nor the -t are part of the 
original root, is indicated by the Scandinavian form m,aae 
(Danish), pronounced m.oh ; praeterite m^aatt. 

This form has still to be satisfactorily accounted 
for. 

Wist. — In its present form a regular prseterite from 
wiss = knon). The difficulties of this word arise from the 
parallel forms icit (as in to wit), and wot = knew. The 
following are the forms of this peculiar word : — 

In Moeso-G-othic, 1 sing. pres. ind. vait ; 2. do., 



THE WEAK TENSES. 283 

vulst ; 1 pi. vitum ; prasteritc 1 s. vissa ; 2 vissess ; 1 
pi. vissediim. From the form vaist we see that the 
second singular is formed after the manner of Tiiust ; that 
is, vaist stands instead of vait-t. From the form vissedum 
we see that the pragterite is not strong, but weak ; therefore 
that vissa is euphonic for vista. 

In Anglo-Saxon. — Wat^ wast, witon, wiste, and ivisse, 
iviston. — Hence the double forms, wiste, and wisse, verify 
the statement concerning the Moe so-Gothic vissa. 

In Icelandic. — Veit, veizt, vitum, vissi. Danish ved, 
vide, vidste. Observe the form vidste ; since, in it, the d 
of the root (in spelling, at least) is preserved. The t of 
the Anglo-Saxon wiste is the t, not of the root, but of the 
inflection. 

In respect to the four forms in question, viz., wit, wot, 
wiss, wisst, the first seems to be the root ; the second a 
strong prseterite regularly formed, but used (like olSa in 
Greek) with a present sense ; the third a weak prseterite, 
of which the -t has been ejected by a euphonic process, 
used also with a present sense ; the fourth is a second 
singular from wiss after the manner of wert from were, 
a second singular from wit after the manner of Tnust, a 
secondary prseterite from wiss, or finally, the form wisse, 
anterior to the operation of the euphonic process that 
ejected the -t. 

§ 317. In the phrase this will do = this will answer the 
purpose, the word do is wholly difierent from the word 
do, meaning to act. In the first case it is equivalent to 
the Latin valere ; in the second to the Latin facere. Of 
the first the Anglo-Saxon inflection is deah, dugon, dohfe, 
dohtest, &c. Of the second it is d6, dd^, dyde, <fcc. I 
doubt whether the prseterite did, as equivalent to valehat 
^was good for, is correct. In the phrase it did for him 
= it finished him, either meaning may be allowed. 



23.1: THE WEAK TEXSES. 

In tiie present Danisli tliey write dugey^ "but say duer ! 
as diiger et noget 7 = Is it worth anything 7 pronounced 
dooer deh note 7 This accounts for the ejection of the g. 
The Anglo-Saxon form dedh does the same. 

§ 318. Mind — mind and do so and so. — In this sen- 
tence the word mind is wholly different from the noun 
mind. The Anglo-Saxon forms are geman. gemanst^ 
gemunon, without the -d ; this letter occurring only in 
the prseterite tense {ge?nunde, gemimdon), of which it is 
the sign. Mind is, then, a pr^eterite form with a present 
sense ; whilst m,inded (as in he minded his business) is 
an instance of excess of inflection ; in other words, it is a 
prgeterite formed from a prseterite. 

§ 319. Yode. — The obsolete prseterite of go, now re- 
placed by 7Z?e?z^, the prgeterite ofivend. Regular, except 
that the initial g has become y. 

§ 320. Did.—Eee § 31T. 

Did, from do^=facio, is a strong verb. This we infer 
jfrom the form of its participle do?ie. 

If so the final -d is not the same as the -d in moved. 
What is it ? There are good grounds for believing that 
in the word did we have a single instance of the old re- 
duplicate prceterite. If so, it is the latter d which is 
radical, and the former which is inflectional. 



ON CONJUGATION. 



235 



CHAPTER XXV. 



ON CONJUGATION. 



§ 321. Attention is directed to tlie following list 



of 



verbs. In the present English they all form the prseter- 
ite in -d or -t ; in Anglo-Saxon, they all formed it by a 
change of the vowel. In other words they are weak verbs 
that were once strong. 





Prceterites. 




English. 




Anglo 


-Saxoyi. 


Present 


Frceterite. 


Present. 


Prceterite. 


Wreak 


Wreaked. 


WXQCQ 


Wrae'c. 


Fret 


Fretted. 


Frete 


Frse't. 


Mete 


Meted. 


Mete 


Mse't. 


Shear 


Sheared 


Scere 


Scear. 


Braid 


Braided. 


Brede 


Bra'd. 


Knead 


Kneaded. 


Cnede 


CnffiM. 


Dread 


Dreaded. 


Drffi'de 


Dred. 


Sleep 


Slept. 


SlApe 


Slep. 


Fold 


Folded. 


Fealde 


Feold. 


Wield 


Wielded. 


Wealde 


Weold. 


Wax 


Waxed. 


Weaxe 


Weox. 


Leap 


Leapt. 


Hleape 


Hleop. 


Sweep 


Swept. 


Swape 


Sweop. 


Weep 


Wept. 


Wepe 


Weop. 


Sow- 


Sowed. 


Sawe 


Seow. 


Bake 


Baked. 


Bace 


Bok. 


Gnaw 


Gnawed. 


Gnage 


Gnoh 


Laugh 


Laughed. 


■mihhe 


Hloh. 


Wade 


Waded. 


Wade 


Wod. 



236 



ON coNJuaATioisr. 





English. 


A 


nglo-Saxon. 


Present. 


PrcBteriie. 


Present. 


PrcBterite, 


Lade 


Laded 


made 


mod. 


Grave 


Gr^ed. 


Grafe 


Gr6£ 


Shave 


Shaved. 


Scafe 


Sc6£ 


Step 


Stepped. 


Steppe 


Stop. 


Wash 


Washed. 


Wacse 


Woes. 


Bellow 


Bellowed. 


Beige 


Bealh. 


Swallow 


Swallowed. 


Swelge 


Swealh. 


Mourn 


Mourned. 


Murne 


Mearn, 


Spurn 


Spurned, 


Spume 


Speam. 


Carve 


Carved. 


Ceorfe 


Cear£ 


Starve 


Starved. 


Steorfe 


St£Er£ 


Thresh 


Threshed. 


J»ersce 


jjaersc. 


Hew 


Hewed. 


Heawe 


Heow. 


Flow 


Flowed. 


Flowe 


Fleow, 


Kow 


Rowed. 


Rowe 


Reow. 


Creep 


Crept. 


Creope 


Creap. 


Dive 


Dived, 


Deofe 


Dea£ 


Shove 


Shoved. 


Sceofe 


Scea£ 


Chew 


Chewed. 


Ceowe 


Cedw. 


Brew 


Brewed. 


Breowe 


Breaw. 


Lock 


Locked, 


Luce 


Leac 


Suck 


Sucked, 


Suce 


Sedc, 


Reek 


Reeked. 


Reoce 


Reac. 


Smoke 


Smoked. 


Sraeoce 


Smeac. 


Bow 


Bowed. 


Beoge 


Beah. 


Lie 


Lied. 


Leoge 


Leah. 


Gripe 


Griped. 


Gripe 


Grap, 


Span 


Spanned. 


Spanne 


Sp^n. 


Eke 


Eked. 


Face 


E6c. 


Fare 


Fared. 


Fare 


For. 



§ 322. Respecting tlie strong verb, the following gen- 
eral statements may be made : 

1. Many strong verbs become weak ; whilst no weak 
verb ever becomes strong. 

2. All the strong verbs are of Saxon origin. None 
are classical. 



ON CONJUGATION. 237 

3. The greater number of them are strong throughout 
the Gothic tongues. 

4. I>lo new word is ever, upon its importation, inflected 
according to the strong conjugation. It is always weak. 
As nearly as a. d. 1085, the French word adouher = to 
dub, was introduced into English. Its praeterite was dub- 
bade. 

5. All derived words are inflected weak. The intran- 
sitive forms drink and lie, are strong ; the transitive forms 
drench andVay, are weak. 

This shows that the division of verbs into weak and 
strong' is a truly natural one. 



238 DEFECTIYEXESS AXD IKEEGULAEITY. 



CHAPTER XXVI. 

DEFECTIVEXESS AXD lE-REGULAPaTY. 

§ 323. The distinction between irregularity and de 
fectiveness has been foresbadowed. It is now more ur 
gently insisted on. 

The words that have hitherto served as illustrations 
are the personal pronouns / or me^ the adjectives good^ 
better^ and best. 

The view of these words was as follows ; viz.^ that 
none of them were irregular^ but that they were all de- 
fective. Me wanted the nominative, / the oblique cases. 
Good was without a comparative, better and best had no 
positive degree. 

Now me and better may be said to make good the de- 
fectiveness of / and good ; and / and good may be said 
to replace the forms wanting in rp.e and better. This gives 
us the principle of compensation. To introduce a new 
term, / and me, good and better, may be said to be coTn- 
jplementary to each other. 

What applies to nouns applies to verbs also. Go and 
icent are not irregularities. Go is defective in the past 
tense. Went is without a present. The two words, how- 
ever, compensate their mutual deficiencies, and are com- 
plementary to each other. 

The distinction between defectiveness and irregularity, 
is the first instrument of criticism for comino; to true 



DEFECTIVENESS AND IREEGULATUTY. 289 

views concerning the proportion of the regular and irreg- 
ular verbs. 

§ 324. The second instrument of criticism in deter- 
mining the irregular verbs, is the meaning that we attach 
to the term. 

It is very evident that it is in the power of the gram- 
marian to raise the number of etymological irregularities 
to any amount, by narrowing the definition of the word 
irregular ; in other words, by framing an exclusive rule. 
The current rule of the common grammarians that the 
preterite is formed by the addition of -t^ or -c?, or -ed ; a 
position sufficiently exclusive ; since it proscribes not only 
the whole class of strong verbs, but also words like hent 
and sent^ where -t exists, but where it does not exist as 
an addition. The regular forms, it may be said, should 
be bended and sended. 

Exclusive, however, as the rule in question is, it is 
plain that it might be made more so. The regular forms 
might, by the fiat of a rule, be restricted to those in -d. 
In this case words like loept and biir7it would be added to 
the already numerous list of irregulars. 

Finally, a* further limitation might be made, by laying 
down as a rule that no word was regular, unless it ended 
in -ed. 

§ 325. Thus much concerning the modes of making 
rules exclusive, and, consequently, of raising the amount of 
irregularities. This is the last art that the philosophic 
grammarian is ambitious of acquiring. True etymology 
reduces irregularity; and that by making the rules of 
grammar, not exclusive, but general. The quantum of 
irregidarity is in the inverse proportion to the generality 
of our rules. In language itself there is no irregularity. 
The word itself is only another name for our ignorance of 
the processes that change words ; and, as irregularity 



240 DEFECTIVENESS AND lEKEQULAEITY. 

is in tlie direct proportion to the exclusiveness of 
our rules, the exclusiveness of our rules is in the 
direct proportion to our ignorance of etymological pro- 
cesses. 

§ 326. The explanation of some fresh terms will lead 
us towards the definition of the word irregular. 

Vital and obsolete processes. — The word moved is 
formed from 'move, by the addition of -d. The addition 
of -d is the process by which the present form is rendered 
prseterite. The word fell is formed from fall, by chang- 
ing a into e. The change of vowel is the process by 
which the present form is rendered praeterite. Of the two 
processes the result is the same. In what respect do 
they differ ? 

Tor the sake of illustration, let a new word be intro- 
duced into the language. Let a prseterite tense of it 
be formed. This prseterite would be formed, not by 
changing the vowel, but by adding -d. No new verb 
ever takes a strong prseterite. The like takes place 
with nouns. No new substantive would form its plural, 
like oa:en or geese, by adding -en, or by changing the 
vowel. It would rather, like fathers and horses, add the 
lene sibilant. 

Now, the processes that change fall, ox and goose in- 
to fell, oxen, and geese, inasmuch as they cease to oper- 
ate on the language in its present stage, are obsolete pro- 
cesses ; whilst those that change move into moved, and 
horse into horses, operating on the language in its present 
stage, are vital processes. 

A definition of the word irregular might be so framed 
as to include all words whose forms could not be accounted 
for by the vital processes. Such a definition "^ould make 
all the strong verbs irregular. 

The very fact of so natural a class as that of the strong 



DEFECTIVENESS AND IKREGULARITY. 241 

verbs being reduced to the condition of irregulars, inva- 
lidates sucb a definition as this. 

§ 327. Processes of necessity as opposed to processes 
of habit. — The combinations -pd^ fd^ -kd^ -sd^ and some 
others, are unpronounceable. Hence words like step^ 
quaffs back, kiss, &c., take after them the sound of -t : 
stept, qiiafft, (fcc, being their prseterites, instead of stepd, 
quaffd. Here the change from -d to -t is a matter of 
necessity. It is not so with words like weep, and wept, 
(fee. Here the change of vowel is not necessary. Weept 
might have been said if the habit of the language had 
permitted. 

A definition of the word irregidar might be so framed 
as to include all words whose natural form was modified 
by any euphonic process whatever. In this case stept 
(modified by a process of necessity), and wept (modified 
by a process of habit), would be equally irregular. 

A less limited definition might account words regular 
as long as the process by which they are deflected from 
their natural form w^as a process of necessity. Those, 
however, which were modified by a process of habit it 
would class with the irregulars. 

Definitions thus limited arise from ignorance of eu- 
phonic processes, or rather from an ignorance of the 
generality of their operation. 

§ 328. Ordinary processes as ojjposed to extraordi- 
nary processes. — The whole scheme of language is ana- 
logical. A new word introduced into a language takes 
the forms of its cases or tenses, &c., from the forms of 
the cases or tenses, &c., of the old words. The analogy is 
extended. Now few forms (if any) are so unique as not 
to have some others corresponding with them ; and few 
processes of change are so unique as not to afi'ect more 
words than one. The forms wept, and slept, correspond 
12 



242 DEFECTIVENESS AND IRREGULARITY. 

^yitll each other. They are brought about by the same 
process : viz., by the shortening of the vovfel m iveep and 
sleep. The analogy of weep is extended to sleep, and vice 
versa. Changing our expression, a common influence 
affects both words. The alteration itself is the leading fact. 
The extent of its influence is an instrument of classifica- 
tion. When processes affect a considerable number of 
words, they may be called ordinary/ processes ; as opposed 
to extraordinary/ processes, which affect one or few words. 

When a word stands by itself, with no other corre- 
sponding to it, we confess our ignorance, and say that it is 
affected by an extraordinary process, by a process peculiar 
to itself, or by a process to which we know nothing 
similar. 

A definition of the word irregular might be so framed 
as to include all words affected by extraordinary pro- 
cesses ; the rest being considered regular. 

§ 329. Positive processes as opposed to ambiguous 
processes. — The words wept and slept are similarly 
affected. Each is changed from weep and sleep respect- 
ively ; and we know that the process which affects the one 
is the process that affects the other also. Here there is 
a positive process. 

Reference is now made to words of a different sort. 
The nature of the word worse has been explained in the 
Chapter on the Comparative Degree. There the form is 
accounted for in two ways, of which only one can be the 
true one. Of the two processes, each might equally 
have brought about the present form. Which of the 
two it was, we are unable to say. Here the process is 
ambiguous. 

A definition of the word irregidar might be so framed 
as to include all words affected by ambiguous processes. 

§ 330. Normal processes as opposed to processes of 



DEFECTIVENESS AND IREEGULARITY. 243 

confiisio?i.—Let a certain word come under class A. Let 
all words under class A be similarly affected. Let a 
given word come under class A. This word will be 
affected even as the rest of class A is affected. The pro- 
cess affecting, and the change resulting, will be normal, 
regular, or analogical. 

Let, however, a word, instead of really coming under 
class A, only appear to do so. Let it be dealt with 
accordingly. The analogy then is a false one. The 
principle of imitation is a wrong one. The process affect- 
ing is a process of confusion. 

Examples of this (a few amongst many) are words 
like songstress^ theirs, minded, where the words songstr-, 
their-, mind-, are dealt with as roots, which they are 
not. 

Ambiguous processes, extraordinary processes, pro- 
cesses of confusion — each, or all of these, are legitimate 
reasons for calling words irregular. The practice of 
etymologists will determine what definition is most con- 
venient. 

"With extraordinary processes we know nothing about 
the word. With ambiguous processes we are unable to 
make a choice. With processes of confusion we see the 
analogy, but, at the same time, see that it is a false one. 

§ 331. Could. — With all persons who pronounce the Z 
this word is truly irregular. The Anglo-Saxon form is 
cu^e. The I is inserted by a process of confusion. 

Can, cunne, canst, cunnon, ciinnan, cu^e, cu^on, cu^ 
— such are the remaining forms in Anglo-Saxon. None 
of them account for the I. The presence of the I makes 
the word coidd irregular. No reference to the allied 
lancruao;es accounts for it. 

Notwithstanding this, the presence of the I is ac- 
counted for. In would and shoidd the I has a proper 



244 DEFECTIVENESS AND IREEGULARITY. 

place. It is part of the original words, will and shall. 
A false analogy looked upon could in tlie same light. 
Hence a true irregularity ; provided that the l he pro- 
noiL7iced. 

The Lj however, is pronounced by few, and that only 
in pursuance with the spelling. This reduces the word 
could to an irregularity, not of language, but only of 
orthography. 

That the mere ejection of the -n in can, and that the 
mere lengthening of the vowel, are not irregularities, we 
learn from a knowledge of the processes that convert the 
Greek ohovro^ (pdontos) into oSov? (odows). 

§ 332. The verb quoth is truly defective. It is found 
in only one tense, one number, and one person. It is the 
third person singular of the prseterite tense. It has the 
further peculiarity of preceding its pronoun. Instead of 
saying he quoth, we say quoth he. In Anglo-Saxon, how- 
ever, it was not defective. It was found in the other 
tenses, in the other number, and in other moods. Ic 
cwe^e yu cwyst, he cwy"^ ; ic cw(b^, }>u cwce'^e, he 
cwcB^, we cwcedon, ge cwcedon, hi cwcedon ; imperative, 
cwe^ ; participle, gecwedeji. In the Scandinavian it is 
current in all its forms. There, however, it means, not to 
speak but to sing. As far as its conjugation goes, it is 
strong. As far as its class goes, it follows the form of 
speak, spoke. Like speak, its Anglo-Saxon form is in m, 
as cwcB^. Like one of the forms of speak, its English 
form is in o, as quoth, spoke. 

§ 333. The principle that gives us the truest views of 
the structure of language is that which considers no 
word irregular unless it be affected by either an ambi- 
guous process, or by a process of confusion. The words 
affected by extraordinary processes form a provisional 
class, which a future increase of our etymological know- 



DEFECTIVENESS AND IRREGULARITY. 245 

ledge may show to be regular. Worse and could are the 
fairest specimens of our irregulars. Yet even could 
is only an irregularity in the written language. The 
printer makes it, and the printer can take it away. 
Hence the class, instead of filling pages, is exceedingly 
limited. 



246 IMPEKSOXAL VERBS. 



CHAPTER XXVII. 



THE IMPERSOXAL VERBS. 



§ 334. In me-seems, and 7ne-thinks, the me is aative 
rather than accusative, and = mihi and fioL rather than 
7ne and fie. 

§ 335. In 7ne-listeth, the 7ne is accusative rather than 
dative, and = me and fie rather than ?nihi and /j.oc. 

For the explanation of this difference see Syntax^ 
Chapter XXI. 



THE VERB SUBSTANTIVE. 247 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 



THE VERB SUBSTANTIVE. 



§ i536. The verb substantive is generally dealt with 
as an irregular verb. This is inaccurate. The true 
notion is that the idea of heiyig or existing is expressed 
by four different verbs, each of which is defective in 
some of its parts. The parts, however, that are want- 
ing in one verb, are made up by the inflections of one of 
the others. There is, for example, no prseterite of the 
verb am, and no present of the verb teas. The absence, 
however, of the present form of was is made up by the 
w^ord am, and the absence of the praeterite form of am is 
made up by the word loas. 

§ 337. Was is defective, except in the prseterite 
tense, wliere it is found both in the indicative and con- 
i'-inctive. 



Indicative. 
Sing. Flur. 

1. "Was Were. 

2. Wast Were. 

3. Was Were. 



Conjunctive. 
Sing. Plur. 

1. Were Were. 

2. Wert Were. 

3. Were Were. 



In the older stages of the Gothic languages the word 
had both a full conjugation and a regular one. In 
Anglo-Saxon it had an infinitive, a participle present, 
and a participle past. In Moeso-Gothic it was inflected 
throughout with -s ; as visa, vas, vesum, visans. In 
that language it has the power of the Latin maneo = to 



2-18 THE VERB SUBSTAXTIYE. 

remain. The r first appears in tlie Old High. GermaTi ^ 
wisu, loas, wdnmies, tcesaner. In Norse the s entirely 
disappears, and the word is inflected with r throughout ; 
vej'a, var, vorum, (fcc. 

§ 338. Be is inflected in Anglo-Saxon throughout the 
present tense, both indicative and subjunctive. It is 
found also as an infinitive, beon ; as a gerund, to heont ' / 
and as a participle, heonde ; in the present English . its 
inflection is as follows : 









Presen.. 




Co 


njuncti 


ve. 








Imperative. 


Shig. 




Plur. 






Sing. 


Plur. 


Be 




Be. 






— 


— 


— 




— 






Be 


Be 


Be 




Be 






— 


— 


Infin. To be. 




Pres 


P. 


I 


,eiDg. 


Past. Part. Beea 



§ 339. The line in Milton beginning If thou heest he 
— (P. L. b. ii.), leads to the notion that the antiquated 
form heest is not indicative, but conjunctive. Such, 
however, is not the case : hyst in Anglo-Saxon is in- 
dicative, the conjunctive form being heO. And every 
thing that 'pretty hin (Cjmbeline). — Here the word bin is 
the conjunctive plural, in Anglo-Saxon be6n ; so that the 
words every thing are to be considered equivalent to the 
plural form all things. The phrase in Latin would stand 
thus, quotquot jpidchra sint ; in Greek, thus, a av Koka y. 
The indicative plural is, in Anglo-Saxon, not beCn^ but 
beo^ and be6. 

§ 340. In the '' Deutsche Grammatik " it is stated that 
the Anglo-Saxon forms bed, bist, bi^, bed^, or be6, have 
not a present but a future sense ; that whilst am means 
I am, beo means / shall be ; and that in the older lan- 
guages it is only where the form am is not found that be 
has the power of a present form. The same root occurs 



THE VERB SUBSTANTIVE. 249 

in the Slavonic and Lithuanic tongues with the same 
power ; as, esmi = I am ; bilsu = / shall be, Lithuanic. 
Esmu = I am ; huhshu = I shall he, Livonic. — Jesm == 
/ am ; hiidu = I shall be, Slavonic. — Gsem = I am ; 
budu = I shall be, Bohemian. This, however, proves, 
not that there is in Angl6-Saxon a future tense, but that 
the word beO has a future sense. There is no fresh tense 
where there is no fresh form. 

The following is a specimen of the future power of 
be6n in Anglo-Saxon : — " Hi ne bedb na cilde, so^lice, 
on domesdcege, ac bed^ swa m^icele menn swa swa hi, 
migton be6n gif hi full weoxon on gewunlicre yldeP — 
^Ifric's Homilies. " They will not be children, forsooth, 
on Domesday, but will be as much (so muckle) men as they 
might be if they were full grown (waxen) in customary 
age." 

§ 341. Now, if we consider the word be6n like the 
word weor^an (see § 343) to mean not so much to be as to 
become, we get an element of the idea of futurity. Things 
which are becoming a7iything have yet something further 
to either do or suffer. , Again, from the idea of futurity we 
get the idea of contingency, and this explains the sub- 
junctive power of be. In English we often say may for 
shall, and the same was done in Anglo-Saxon. 

§ 342. Am,. — Of this form it should be stated that the 
letter -m is no part of the original word. It is the sign of 
the first person, just as it is in Greek, and several other 
languages. 

It should also be stated, that although the fact be 
obscured, and although the changes be insufficiently 
accounted for, the forms am, art, are, and is, are not, 
like am and was, parts of different words, but forms of 
one and the same word ; in other terms, that, although 
between am and be there is no etymological connexion, 



250 



THE VERB SUBSTANTIVE. 



there is one behyeen am and is. This we collect from the 
comparison of the Indo-European languages. 



Sanskrit 
Zend 
Greek . 
Latin . 
Lithuanic 
Old Slavonic 
Moeso-Gothic . 
Old Saxon 
Anglo-Saxon . 
Icelandic . 
English . 



1. 


2. 


3. 


Asmi 


Asi 


Asti. 


Ahmi 


A si 


Ashti. 


El/jii 


Eh 


'Effrl 


Sum 


Es 


Est. 


Esmi 


Essi 


Esti. 


Tesmy 


Tesi 


Testy. 


Im 


Is 


1st. 


— 


»Js 


1st. 


Eom 


Eart 


Is. 


Em 


Ert 


Er. 


Am 


Art 


Is. 



§ 343. Woi^th. — In the following lines of Scott, the 
word worth= is, and is a fragment of the regular Anglo- 



Saxon verb 
werden. 



weor^an = to be, or to 



become ; German 



"Woe worth the chase, woe worth the day, 
That cost thy life, my gallant grey. 

Lady of the Lake. 



* Found rarely : 
matik " L 894. 



hist being the cuiTent form. — " Deutsche 6raiu< 



THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 251 



CHAPTER XXIX. 

THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 

§ 344. The present participle, called also the active 
participle and the participle in -ing, is formed from the 
original word by adding -ing" ; as, move, moving'. In 
the older languages the termination was more marked, 
being -nd. Like the Latin participle in -ns, it was 
originally declined. The Moeso-Gothic and Old High 
German forms are hahands and hapenter = having, re- 
spectively. The -5 in the one language, and the -er in 
the other, are the signs of the case and gender. In the 
Old Saxon and Anglo-Saxon the forms are -and and 
-ande ; as hindand, hindande = binding. In all the 
Norse languages, ancient and modern, the -d is preserved. 
So it is in the Old Lowland Scotch, and in many of the 
modern provincial dialects of England, where strikand, 
goand, is said for striking, going. In Staffordshire, 
where the -ing is pronounced -ingg, there is a fuller 
sound than that of the current English. In Old English 
the form in -nd is predominant, in Middle English the 
use fluctuates, and in New English the termination ~ing is 
universal. In the Scotch of the modern writers we find 
the form -in. 

The rising sun o'er Galston muirs 

"Wi' glorious light was glintin' ; 
The hares were hirplin' do\vTi the furs, 

The lav'rocks they were chantin'. 

Burns' Holy Fair. 



252 THE PKESEKT PAKTICIPLE. 

§ 345. It has often been remarked tliat the participle 
is used in many languages as a substantive. This is true 
in Greek, 

'0 'irpd<Tff(>}v=the actor, Tvhen a male. 
'H Trpa(r(xov(Ta=the actor, when a female. 
To ■KpaTrov=the active principle of a thing. 

But it is also stated, that, in the English language, 
the participle is used as a substantive in a greater degree 
than elsewhere, and that it is used in several cases and ic 
both numbers, e. g., 

Rising early is healthy, 
There is health in rising early. 
This is the advantage of rising early. 
The risings in the Forth, &,c. 

Some acute remarks of Mr. R. Taylor, in the Intro- 
duction to his edition of Tooke's " Diversions of Purley," 
modify this view. According to these, the -ing in 
words like rising is not the -ing of the present pai tici- 
ple ; neither has it originated in the Anglo-Saxon -end. 
It is rather the -ing in words like morning ; which is 
anything but a participle of the non-existent verb r.iorn. 
and which has orio;inated in the Anglo-Saxon substan- 
tival termination -ung. Upon this Rask writes as fol- 
lows : — " Gitsimgj gewilnung= desire ; swutelung •= ma- 
nifestation ; clcensung = a cleansing ; sceawung=^view, 
contemplation; eor^-beofimg = an earthquake ; gesomr 
nnng=an assembly. This termination is chiefiy used 
in forming substantives from verbs of the fir3t class in 
-ian ; as halgung = consecration, from hdlgian'=^to con- 
secrate. These verbs are all feminine." — "Anglo-Saxon 
Grammar," p. 107. 

Now, whatever may be the theory of the origin of 
the termination -ing in old phrases like rising early ist 
12* 



THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 253 

healthy^ it cannot apply to expressions of recent introduc- 
tion. Here the direct origin in -ung is out of the ques- 
tion. 

The view, then, that remains to be taken of the forms 
in question is this : 

1. That the older forms in -ing are substantival in 
origin, and = the Anglo-Saxon -ung. 

2. That the latter ones are irregularly participial, and 
have been formed on a false analogy. 



254 THE PAST PAETICIPLE, 



CHAPTER XXX. 



THE PAST PAP^TICIPLE. 



§ 346. A. The participle in -en. — In the Anglo-Sax- 
on this participle was declined like the adjectives. Like 
the adjectives, it is, in the present English, undeclined. 

In Anglo-Saxon it always ended in -en, as sungen, 
fimden, bunden. In English this -en is often wanting, 
as found, bound ; the word bounden being antiquated. 

Words where the -en is wanting may be viewed in two 
lights ; 1, they may be looked upon as participles that 
have lost their termination ; 2, they may be considered as 
prseterites with a participial sense. 

§ 347. Drank, drunk, drunken. — With all words 
wherein the vowel of the plural differs from that of the 
singular, the participle takes the plural form. To say / 
have drunk, is to use an ambiguous expression ; since 
drunk may be either a participle minus its termination, 
or a prseterite with a participial sense. To say I have 
drank, is to use a praeterite for a participle. To say 1 
have drunken, is to use an unexceptional form. 

In all words with a double form, as spake and spoke, 
brake and broke, clave and clove, the participle follows the 
form in o, as spoken, broken, cloven. Spaken, broken, 
claven are impossible forms. There are degrees in laxity 
of language, and to say the spear is broke is better than 
to say the spear is brake. 



THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 255 

§ 348. As a general rule, we find tlie participle in -en 
wherever the prseterite is strong ; indeed, the participle 
in -en may he called the strong participle, or the participle 
of the strong conjugation. Still the two forms do not 
always coincide. In moWy mowed^ mown^ sow, soived, 
soivn ; and several other words, we find the participle 
strong, and the pragterite weak. I remember no instances 
of the converse. This is only another way of saying that 
the prseterite has a greater tendency to pass from strong 
to weak than the participle. 

§ 349. In the Latin language the change from s to r, 
and vice versa^ is very common. "VYe have the double 
forms arbor and arhos, honor and honos, (fee. Of this 
change we have a few specimens in English. The words 
i^ear and raise, as compared with each other, are 
examples. In Anglo-Saxon a few words undergo a 
similar change in the plural number of the strong prse- 
terites. 

Ceose, / choose ; ceas, / chose ; curon, we chose ; gecoren, chosen. 
Forleose, / lose ; forleas, / lost ; forluron, we lost ; forloren, lost. 
Hreose, I rush ; hreas, I ncshed ; hruron, we rushed ; gehror en, rushed. 

This accounts for the participial form forlorn, or lost, 
in New High German verloren. In Milton's lines, 

the piercing air 



Bui'ns frore, and cold performs the efifect of fire, 

Paradise Lost, b. ii., 

we have a form from the Anglo-Saxon participle gefroren 
=frozen. 

§ 350. B. The participle in -d, -t, or -ed. — In the 
Anglo-Saxon this participle was declined like the adjec- 
tive. Like the adjective, it is, in the present English, 
undeclined. 



256 THE PAST PAKTICIPLE. 

In Anglo-Saxon it differed in form from the prseterite, 
inasmuch as it ended in -ec?, or -t^ whereas the prseterite 
ended in -ode^ -de, or -te : as, lufode, bmrnde, di/pte, prse- 
terites ; gehffod, bcerned, dypt^ participles. 

As the ejection of the e (in one case final in the other 
not) reduces words like hcerned and hcernde to the same 
form, it is easy to account for the present identity of form 
between the w^eak prseterites and the participles in -d : 
e. g., I moved, I have moved, (fc.c. 

§ 351. The prefix y. — In the older writers, and in 
works written, like Thomson's " Castle of Indolence," in 
imitation of them, we find prefixed to the prseterite parti- 
ciple the letter y-, as, yclept = called : yclad = clothed : 
ydrad = dreaded. 

The following are the chief facts and the current opin- 
ion concerning this prefix : — 

1. It has grown out of the fuller forms ge- : Anglo- 
Saxon, ge- : Old Saxon, gi- : Moeso-Gothic, ga- : Old 
High German, ka-, cha-, ga-, ki-, gi-. 

2. It occurs in each and all of the Germanic languages 
of the Gothic stock. 

3. It occurs, with a few fragmentary exceptions, in 
none of the Scandinavian languages of the Gothic stock. 

4. In Anglo-Saxon it occasionally indicates a difference 
of sense; sus, hcLten= called, ge-haiteii=2Jromised; horen 
= home, ^e-boren = horn. 

5. It occurs in nouns as well as verbs. 

6. Its power, in the case of nouns, is generally some 
idea of association, or collection, — Moeso-Gothic, si7i]>s = 
a journey, ga-sin]>a = a companion ; Old High German, 
perc=hill ; ki-perki {gebirge) = a range of hills. 

T. But it has also & frequentative power; a frequenta- 
tive power, which is, in all probability, secondary to its 
•collective power ; since things which recur frequently recur 



THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 267 

with a tendency to collection or association ; Middle High 
German, ge-rassel = rustling ; ge-rumpel — c-rmnple. 

8. And it has also the power of expressing the pos- 
session of a quality. 



Anglo-Saxon. 


English. 


Anglo-Saxon. 


Latin. 


Feax 


Hair 


Ge-iesiX 


Comatus. 


Heorte 


Heart 


Gi^c-heort 


Cordatus. 


Stence 


Odour 


G^e-stence 


Odorics. 



This power is also a collective, since every quality is asso- 
ciated with the object that possesses it ; a sea with waves 
= a loavy sea. 

9. Hence it is probable that the ga-^ ki-, or gi-, Goth- 
ic, is the cum of Latin languages. Such, at least, is 
Grimm's view, as given in the " Deutsche Grammatik," i. 
1016. 

Concerning this, it may be said that it is dej&cient in 
an essential point. It does not show how the participle 
past is collective. Undoubtedly it may be said that every 
such participle is in the condition of words like ge-feax 
and ge-heort ; i. e., that they imply an association between 
the object and the action or state. But this does not 
seem to be Grimm's view ; he rather suggests that the ge 
may have been a prefix to verbs in general, originally at- 
tached to all their forms, but finally abandoned every- 
where, except in the case of the participle. 

The theory of this prefix has yet to assume a satisfac ■ 
tory form. 



25S C0AIP051TI0^'■. 



CHAPTER XXXI. 



COjIFOSITIOX. 



§ 35-. Ix the following words, amongst many otliers, 
we liave palpable and indubitable specimens of composi- 
tion — day-star, vine-yard, sini-ljeam. apple-tree, ship-load. 
silver-sniith. <S:c. The words palpahle and induhitahle 
have been used, because in many cases.. as will be seen 
hereafter, it is difficult to determine whether a word be a 
true compound or not. 

§ 353. Xow. in each of the compounds quoted above, 
it may be seen that it is the second word which is Cjuali- 
fied; or defined, by the first, and that it is not the first 
which is qualified; or defined, by the second. Of yards, 
heanis. trees, loads. S7?iiths. there may be many sorts, and. 
in order to determine what particular sort of yard, beam, 
tree, load, or smith, may be meant the words vine, sim, 
apple, ship, and silver, are prefixed. In compound 
words it is the first term that defines or particularises the 
secojid. 

§ 354. That the idea given by the word apple-tree 
is not referable to the words apple and tree, irrespective 
of the order in which they occur, may be seen by re- 
versing the position of them. The word tree-apple. 
although not existing in the language, is as correct a 
word as thorn-apple. In tree-apple., the particular sort 
of app)le meant is denoted by the word tree, and if there 



COMPOSITION. 259 

were in our gardens various sorts of plants called apples^ 
of wliicli some grew along tlie ground and others upon 
trees, sucli a word as tree-apple would be required in 
order to be opposed to earth-apple^ or ground-apple^ or 
some word of the kind. 

In the compound words tree-apple and apple-tree^ we 
liave the same elements differently arranged. However, 
as the word tree-apple is not current in the language, 
the class of compounds indicated by it may seem to 
be merely imaginary. Nothing is farther from being 
the case. A tree-rose is a rose of a particular sort. 
The generality of roses being on shrubs, this grows on a 
t7^ee. Its peculiarity consists in this fact, and this 
particular character is expressed by the word tree 
prefixed. A rose-tree is a tree of a particular sort, 
distinguished from apple-trees, and trees in general (in 
other words, particularised or defined), by the word tree 
prefixed. 

A ground-nut is a nut particularised by growing in 
the ground. A nut-ground is a ground particularised by 
producing nuts. 

K finger -ring, as distinguished from an ear-ring, and 
from rings in general (and so particularised), is a ring 
for the finger. A ring-finger, as distinguished from/ore- 
fingers, and from fingers in general (and so particular- 
ised), is a finger whereon rings are worn. 

§ 355, At times this rule seems to be violated. The 
words spit-fire and dare-devil seem exceptions to it. 
At the first glance it seems, in the case of a spit-fire, 
that what he (or she) spits is fire ; and that, in the case 
of a dare-devil, what he (or she) dares is the devil. In 
this case the initial words spit and dare are particu- 
larised by the final ones fire and devil. The true 
idea, however, confirms the original rule. A spitfire 



260 COMPOSITION. 

voids his fire by spitting. A dare-devil^ in meeting 
tlie fiend, would not shrink from him, but would 
defy him. A spit-Jire is not one who spits fire, but 
one whose fire is spit. A dare-devil is not one who 
dares even the devil, but one by whom the devil is even 
dared. 

§ 356. Of the two elements of a compound word, 
which is the most important? In one sense the latter, 
in another sense the former. The latter word is the 
most essential ; since the general idea of trees must exist 
before it can be defined or particularised; so becoming 
the idea which we have in apple-tree^ rose-tree^ (fee. 
The former word, however, is the most ijifluential. 
It is by this that the original idea is qualified. 
The latter word is the staple original element : the 
former is- the superadded influencing element. Com- 
pared with each other, the former element is active, 
the latter passive. Etymologically speaking, the for- 
mer element, in English compounds, is the most im- 
portant. 

§ 357. Most numerous are the observations that bear 
upon the detail of the composition of words ; e. g., 
how nouns combine with nouns, as in sun-beam; 
nouns with verbs, as in dare-devil, (fee. It is thought 
however, sufficient in the present work to be content 
with, 1. defining the meaning of the term composi- 
tion ; 2. explaining the nature of some obscure com- 
pounds. 

Composition is the joining together, in language, of 
two different words, and treating the combination as a 
single term. Observe the words in italics. 

In language. — A great number of our compounds, 
like the word merry-making, are divided by the sign -, 
or the hyphen. It is very plain that if all words spelt 



COMPOSITION. 261 

with a hyphen were to be considered as compounds, 
the formation of them would be not a matter of speech, 
or language, but one of writing or spelling. This dis- 
tinguishes compounds in language from mere printers' 
compounds. 

Two.—¥oY this, see § 369. 

Different. — In Old High German we find the form 
selp-s'elpo. Here there is the junction of two words, but 
not the junction of two different ones. This distin- 
guishes composition from gemination. 

Words. — In fathers, clear-er, four-th, 6cc., there is 
the addition of a letter or a syllable, and it may be even 
of the part of a word. There is no addition, however, of 
a whole word. This distinguishes composition from de- 
rivation. 

Treating the combination as a single term. — In de- 
termining between derived words and compound words, 
there is an occasional perplexity ; the perplexity, however, 
is far greater in determining between a compound word 
and two loords. In the eyes of one grammarian the term 
mountain height may be as truly a compound word as 
sun-beam. In the eyes of another grammarian it may be 
no compound w^ord, but twt) words, just as Alpine height 
is two words ; mountain being dealt with as an adjective. 
It is in the determination of this that the accent plays an 
important part. 

§ 358. As a preliminary to a somewhat subtle distinc- 
tion, the attention of the reader is drawn to the following 
line, slightly altered, from Churchill : — 

" Then rest, xnj friend, and spare thy precious breath." 

On each of the syllables rest, friend, spare, prec-, 
breath, there is an accent. Each of these syllables 



262 COMPOSITION. 

must be compared witli tlie one that precedes it; rest 
witli then, friend witli my, and so on througliout the line. 
Compared with the word and, the word spare is not 
only accented, but the accent is conspicuous and pro- 
minent. There is so little on a7id, so much on spare, that 
the disparity of accent is very manifest. 

Now, if in the place of and, there were some other 
word, a word not so much accented as spare, but still 
more accented than and, this disparity would be dimi- 
nished, and the accents of the two words might be said 
to be at par, or nearly so. As said before, the line was 
slightly altered from Churchill, the real reading being 

" Then rest, my friend, spare, spare thj precious breath." 

In the true reading we actually find what had previously 
only been supposed. In the words spare, spare, the 
accents are nearly at par. Such the difference between 
accent at par and disparity of accent. 

Good illustrations of the parity and disparity of ac- 
cent may be drawn from certain names of places. Let 
there be such a sentence as the following : the lime house 
near the bridge north of the new port. Compare the 
parity of accent on the pairs of words lime and house, 
bridge and north, new and port, with the disparity of 
accent in the compound words Limehouse, Bridgenorth, 
and Newport. The separate words beef steak., where 
the accent is nearly at far, compared with the 
compound word sweepstakes, where there is a great dis- 
parity of accent, are further illustrations of the same dif- 
ference. 

The difference between a compound word and a pair 
of words is further illustrated by comparing such terms 
as the following: — black bird, meaning a bird that 



COMPOSITION. 263 

is black, witli blackbird = tlie Latin merula ; blue 
bell, meaning a bell that is blue, with bluebell, the 
flower. Expressions like a sharp edged instrument, 
meaning an instrument that is sharp and has edges, 
as opposed to a sharp-edged instrum^ent, meaning an 
instrument loith sharp edges, further exemplify this 
difference. 

Subject to a few exceptions, it may be laid down, 
that, in the English language, there is no composition 
unless there is either a change of form or a change of 
accent. 

§ 359. The reader is now informed, that unless he has 
taken an exception to either a statement or an inference, 
he has either seen beyond what has been already laid 
down by the author, or else has read him with insuf- 
ficient attention. This may be shown by drawing a 
distinction between a compound form and a compound 
idea. 

In the words a red house, each word preserves its 
natural and original meaning, and the statement sug- 
gested by the term is that a house is red. By a parity 
of reasoning a mad house should mean a house that is 
mad; and provided that each word retain its natural 
mea7iing and its natural accent, such is the fact. Let a 
house mean, as it often does, 2^ family. Then the phrase, 
a mad house, means that the house, or family, is mad, 
iust as a red house means that the house is red. Such, 
however, is not the current meaning of the word. Every 
one knows that a Tnad house means a house for 9nad ?ne?i ; 
in which case it is treated as a compound word, and has 
a marked accent on the first syllable, just as Lime- 
house has. Now, compared with the word red house, 
meaning a house of a red colour, and compared with the 
words mad house, meaning a deranged family, the word 



264 COMPOSITION. 

mcidhouse^ m its common sense, expressed a compound 
idea ; as opposed to two ideas, or a double idea.- Tlie 
word heef steak is evidently a compound idea ; but as 
there is no disparity of accent, it is not a compound 
word. Its sense is compound. Its form is not compound 
but double. This indicates the objection anticipated, 
which is this : viz.^ that a definition, which would 
exclude such a word as heef steak from the list of com- 
pounds, is, for that very reason, exceptionable. I answer 
to this, that the term in question is a compound idea, 
and not a compound form ; in other words, that it is a 
compound in logic, but not a compound in etymology. 
Now etymology, taking cognisance of forms only, has 
nothing to do with ideas, except so far as they influence 
forms. 

Such is the commentary upon the words, treating 
the comhiyiation as a single term ; in other words, such 
the difference between a compound word and two 
words. The rule, being repeated, stands (subject to 
exceptions indicated above) thus : — there is no true 
composition without either a change of form or a change 
of accent. 

§ 360. As I wish to be clear upon this point, I shall 
illustrate the statement by its application. 

The term tree-rose is often pronounced tree rCse ; 
that is, with the accent at far. It is compound in the 
one case ; it is a pair of words in the other. 

The terms mountain ash and mountain height are 
generally (perhaps always) pronounced with an equal 
accent on the syllables mount- and ash^ rnount- and 
height^ respectively. In this case the word m^ountain 
must be dealt with as an adjective, and the words con- 
sidered as two. The word m^ountain wave is often 
pronounced with a visible diminution of accent on the 



COMPOSITION. 265 

last syllable, In this case there is a disparity of accent, 
and the word is compound. 

§ 361. The following quotation indicates a further 
cause of perplexity in determining between compound 
words and two words : — 

1. 

A wet sheet and a blowing gale, 

A breeze that follows fast ; 
That fills the white and swelling sail, 

And bends the gallant mast. 

Allan Cunningham, 

2. 
Britannria needs no bulwarks, 
No towers along the steep ; 
Her march is o'er the mountain-wave, 
Her home is on the deep. 

Thomas Campbell. 



To speak first of the term gallant mast. If gallant 
mean brave, there are two words. If the words be two, 
there is a stronger accent on wast. If the accent on 
mast be stronger, the rhyme yf\\h.fast is more complete ; 
in other words, the metre favours the notion of the 
words being considered as two. Gallant-mast, however, 
is a compound word, with an especial nautical meaning. 
In this case the accent is stronger on gal- and weaker 
on -mast; This, however, is not the state of things 
that the metre favours. The same applies to mountain 
wave. The same person who in prose would throw a 
stronger accent on m^onnt- and a weaker one on wave 
(so dealing with the word as a compound), might, in poetry, 
make the words two, by giving to the last S3^11able a parity 
of accent. 

The following quotation from Ben Jonson may bo 
13 



266 COMPOSITION?". 

read in twc ways ; and tlie accent may vary with the 
reading : 

1. 

Lay thy bow of pearl apart, 
And thy silver shining quiver. 

2. 

Lay thy bow of pearl apart, 
And thy silver-shining quiver. 

CynihicH s Revels. 

§ 362. On certain words tvherein the fact of their 
being" compound is obscured. — Composition is the addi- 
tion of a word to a word, derivation is the addition of 
certain letters or syllables to a word. In a compound 
form each element has a separate and independent exist- 
ence ; in a derived form, only one of the elements has 
such. Now it is very possible that in an older stage of 
a language two words may exist, may be put together, 
and may so form a compound, each word having, then, 
a separate and independent existence. In a later stage 
of language, however, only one of these words may 
have a separate and independent existence, the other 
having become obsolete. In this case a compound word 
would take the appearance of a derived one, since but 
one of its elements could be exhibited as a separate 
and independent word. Such is the case with, amongst 
others, the word bishop-ric. In the present language 
the word ric has no separate and independent exist- 
ence. For all this, the word is a true compound, 
since, in Anglo-Saxon, we have the noun rice as 
a separate, independent word, signifying kingdom or 
domain. 

Again, without becoming obsolete, a word may alter 
its form. This is the case with most of our adjectives 



COMPOSITION. 267 

in -ly. At present tliey appear derivative ; their ter- 
mination -ly having no separate and independent exist- 
ence. The older language, however, shows that they are 
compounds ; since -ly is nothing else than -lie, Anglo- 
Saxon ; -lih^ Old High German ; -leiks^ Moeso-Gothic ; == 
like, or similis, and equally with it an independent separate 
w^ord. 

§ 363. " Subject to a few exceptions, it may be laid 
down, that there is no true co7?tposition unless there is 
either a change of form or a change of accent.''^ — Such is 
the statement made in § 358. The first class of excep- 
tions consists of those words w4iere the natural tendency 
to disparity of accent is traversed by some rule of 
euphony. For example, let two w^ords be put together, 
which at their point of contact form a combination of 
sounds foreign to our habits of pronunciation. The 
rarity of the combination will cause an effort in utter- 
ance. The effort in utterance will cause an accent to 
be laid on the latter half of the compound. This will 
equalize the accent, and abolish the disparity. The 
word 7nonkshood, the name of a flower {aconitiim ?ia- 
pellns), where, to my ear at least, there is quite as much 
accent on the -hood as on the monks-, may serve in the 
way of illustration. Monks is one word, hood another. 
When joined together, the h- of the -hood is put in im- 
mediate apposition with the s of the monks-. Hence 
the combination mojikshood. At the letters s and h is 
the point of contact. Now the sound of s followed im- 
mediately by the sound of ^ is a true aspirate. But 
true aspirates are rare in the English language. Being 
of rare occurrence, the pronunciation of them is a matter 
of attention and effort ; and this attention and effort 
create an accent which otherwise would be absent. 



268 COMPOSITIOi^T. 

Hence words like monks-hood^ well-head^ and some 
others. 

Real reduplications of consonants, as in hop-pole^ may 
liave the same parity of accent with, the true aspirates : 
and for the same reasons. They are rare combinations 
that require effort and attention. 

§ 364. The second class of exceptions contains those 
words wherein between the first element and the second 
there is so great a disparity, either in the length of the 
vowel, or the length of the syllable en masse^ as to coun- 
teract the natural tendency of the first element to become 
accented. One of the few specimens of this class (which 
after all may consist of double words) is the term upstand- 
ing. Here it should be remembered, that words like 
haphcLzard, foolhardy ^ upholder^ and withheld come 
under the first class of the exceptions. 

§ 365. The third class of exceptions contains words 
like perchance and perhaps. In all respects but one 
these are double words, just as hy chance is a double 
word. Per, however, differs from hy in having no sepa- 
rate existence. This sort of words we owe to the multi- 
plicity of elements (classical and Gothic) in the English 
lano;uao;e. 

§ 366. Peacock, peahen, — If these words be rendered 
masculine or feminine by the addition of the elements 
-cock and -hen, the statements made in the beginning of 
the present chapter are invalidated. Since, if the word 
pea- be particularized, qualified, or defined by the words 
-cock and -hen, the second term defines or particularises 
the first, which is contrary to the rule of § 356. The 
truth, however, is, that the words -cock and' -hen are 
defined by the prefix pea-. Preparatory to the exhibi- 
tion of this, let us remember that the word pea (although 



^ COMPOSITION. 269 

now found in composition only) is a true and indepen- 
dent substantive, the name of a species of fowl, like 
pheasant^ partridge^ or any otlier appellation. It is the 
Latin pavo^ German pfau. Now if the word jpeacock 
mean a pea {pfaic or pavo) that is a male, then do wood' 
cock, black-cock, and haJitam-cock, mean ivoods, blacks, 
and bantams that are male. Or if the word peahen 
mean a pea {pfau or pavo) that is female, then do 
moorhen and guineahen mean moors and guineas that are 
female. Again, if ^'peahen mean ^ pea {pfau oy pavo) 
that is female, then does the compound pheasant-hen 
mean the same as hen-pheasant ; which is not the case. 
The fact is that peacock means a cock that is a pea 
{pfau or pavo) ; peahen means a hen that is a pea {pfau 
or pavo) ; and, finally, peafowl means a fowl that is a 
pea {pfau or pavo). In the same way moorfoivl means, 
not a moor that is couiiected with a fowl, but dbfoivl that 
is connected with a m^oor. 

§ 367. It must be clear that in every compound word 
there are, at least, two parts ; i. e., the whole or part 
of the original, and the whole or part of the superadded 
word. In the most perfect forms of inflection, how- 
ever, there is a third element, viz., a vowel, conso- 
nant, or syllable that joins the first word with the 
second. 

In the older forms of all the Gothic languages the 
presence of this third element was the rule rather than 
the exception. In the present English it exists in but few 
words. 

a. The -a- in black-a-moor is possibly such a connect- 
ing element. 

b. The -in- in night-in-gale is most probably such a 
connecting element. Compare the German form nacht- 



270 COMPOSITION. 

i-gale, and remember the tendency of vowels to take tlie 
sound of -ng before g. 

§ 368. Improper compounds. — The -5- in words like 
Thur-s-day^ hunt-s-m.an, may be one of two things. 

a. It may be the sign of the genitive case, so that 
Thursday = Thoris dies. In this case the word is an 
imjjroper compound, since it is like the word pafer-fami- 
lias in Latin, in a common state of syntactical construc- 
tion. 

h. It may be a connecting sound, like the -i- in nacht- 
i-gale. Reasons for this view occur in the following 
fact : — 

In the modern German languages the genitive case of 
feminine nouns ends otherwise than in -s. Nevertheless, 
the sound of -s- occurs in composition equally, whether the 
noun it follows be masculine or feminine. This fact, as 
far as it goes, makes it convenient to consider the sound 
in question as a connective rather than a case. Probably, 
it is neither one nor the other exactly, but the effect of a 
false analogy. 

§ 369. Decomposites. — " Composition is the joining 
together of tiuo words." — See § 357. 

Words like mid-ship-man, gentle-man-like, &c., where 
the number of verbal elements seems to amount to three, 
are no exception to this rule ; since compound radicals 
like midship and gentleman, are, for the purposes of com- 
position, single words. Compounds wherein one element 
is compound are called decomposites. 

§ 370. There are a number of words which are never 
found by themselves ; or, if so found, have never the 
same sense that they have in combination. Mark the 
word combination. The terms in question are points of 
combination, not of composition : since they form not the 



COMPOSITION. 271 

parts of words, but the parts of phrases. Such are the 
expressions ti7ne and tide — might and onain — rede me 
my riddle — pay your shot — rhyme and reason^ (fee. 
These words are evidently of the same class, though not of 
the same species with bishopric^ colewort^ sjnllikin, gossip^ 
mainswearer^ (fee. 

These last-mentioned terms give us obsolete words pre- 
served in composition. The former give us obsolete words 
preserved in combination. 



272 DEKIYATION AND INFLECTION. 



CHAPTER XXXII. 

ON DERIVATION AND INFLECTION. 

§ 371. Derivation, like etymology, is a word used in 
a wide and in a limited sense. In the wide sense of the 
term, every word, except it be in the simple form of a 
root, is a derived word. In this sense the cases, numbers, 
and genders of nouns, the persons, moods, and tenses of 
verbs, the ordinal numbers, the diminutives, and even the 
compound words, are alike matters of derivation. In the 
wide sense of the term the word fathers, from father, is 
equally in a state of derivation with the word strength 
from strong. 

In the use of the word, even in its limited sense, there 
is considerable laxity and uncertainty. 

Ge7ider, number, case. — These have been called the 
accidents of the noun, and these it has been agreed to 
separate from derivation in its stricter sense, or from 
derivation properly so called, and to class together under 
the name of declension. Nouns are declined. 

Person, number, tense, voice. — These have been called 
the accidents of a verb, and these it has been agreed 
to separate from derivation properly so called, and to 
class together under the name of conjugation. Verbs are 
conjugated. 

Conjugation and declension constitute inflection. 
Nouns and verbs, speaking generally, are inflected. 



DERIVATION AND INFLECTION. 273 

Inflection, a part of derivation in its wider sense, is 
separated from derivation properly so called, or from de- 
rivation in its limited sense. 

The degrees of comparison, or certain derived forms 
of adjectives ; the ordinals, or certain derived forms of 
the numerals ; the diminutives, (fee, or certain derived 
forms of the substantive, have been separated from deri- 
vation properly so called, and considered as parts of in- 
flection. I am not certain, however, that for so doing 
there is any better reason than mere convenience. 

Derivation proper, the subject of the present chapter, 
comprises all the changes that words undergo, which are 
not referable to some of the preceding heads. As such, 
it is, in its details, a wider field than even composition. 
The details, however, are not entered into. 

§ 372. Derivation proper may be divided according to 
a variety of principles. Amongst others — 

1. According to the evidence. — In the evidence that a 
word is not simple, but derived, there are at least two 
degrees. 

a. That the word strength is a derived word I collect 
to a certainty from the word strong, an independent form, 
which I can separate from it. Of the nature of the word 
strength there is the clearest evidence, or evidence of the 
first degree. 

h. Foiol, hail, nail, sail, tail, sold ; in Anglo-Saxon, 
fugel, hcegel, ncegel, segel, tcegel, sawel. — These words 
are by the best grammarians considered as derivatives. 
Now, w^ith these words I cannot do what was done with 
the word strength, I cannot take from them the part 
which I look upon as the derivational addition, and after 
that leave an independent word. Strength -th is a true 
word ; fowl or fugel -I is no true word. If I believe 

13* 



274 DEEIYATION AND INFLECTION. 

these latter words to be derivations at all, I do it be< 
cause I find in words like harelle^ &c.j the 4 as a deriva- 
tional addition. Yet, as the fact of a word being some- 
times used as a derivational addition does not preclude it 
from being at other times a part of the root, the evidence 
that the words in question are not simple, but derived, 
is not cogent. In other words, it is evidence of the sec- 
ond degree. 

II. According to the effect. — The syllable -en in the 
word whiten changes the noun white into a verb. This is 
its effect. "We may so classify derivational forms as to 
arrange combinations like -en (whose effect is to give the 
idea of the verb) in one order ; whilst combinations like 
-th (whose effect is, as in the word strength^ to give the 
idea of abstraction) form another order. 

III. According to the form. — Sometimes the deriva- 
tional element is a vowel (as the -ie in doggie), some- 
times a consonant (as the -th in strength), sometimes 
a vowel and consonant combined; in other words a 
syllable (as the -en, in whiten), sometimes a change 
of vowel without any addition (as the -i in tip, com- 
pared with top), sometimes a change of consonant 
T\ithout any addition (as the z in prize, compared 
with price). Sometimes it is a change of accent, like a 
survey, compared with to survey. To classify deriva- 
tions in this manner, is to classify them according to their 
form. 

IV. According to the historical origin of the deriva- 
tional elements. 

y. According to the number of the derivational ele- 
ments. — In fisher, as compared withj^^A, there is but one 
derivational affix. In fishery, as compared with fish, the 
number of derivational elements is two. 



DERIVATION AND INFLECTION. 275 

§ 373. In words like bishopric^ and many others men- 
tioned in the last Chapter, we had compound words under 
the appearance of derived ones ; in words like upmost, 
and many others, we have derivation under the appear- 
ance of composition. 



276 ADYEEBS. 



CHAPTER XXXIII. 



ADVERBS. 



§ 374. Adverbs. — Tlie adverbs are capable of being 
classified after a variety of principles. 

Firstly, tbey may be divided according to tbeir mean- 
ing. In this case we speak of tbe adverbs of time, place, 
number, manner. 

§ 375. Well, better, ill, worse. — Here we have a class 
of adverbs expressive of degree, or intensity. Adverbs 
of this kind are capable of taking an inflection, viz., that 
of the comparative and superlative degrees. 

NoiD, then, here, there. — In the idea expressed by 
these words there are no degrees of intensity. Adverbs 
of this kind are incapable of taking any inflection. 

Adverbs difi'er from nouns and verbs in being suscepti- 
ble of one sort of inflection only, viz., that of degree. 

§ 376. Secondly, adverbs may be divided according to 
their form and origin. 

Better, ivorse. — Here the words are sometimes ad- 
verbs; sometimes adjectives. — This book is better than 
that — here better agrees with book, and is, therefore, ad- 
jectival. This looks better than that — ^here better quali- 
fies looks, and is therefore adverbial. Again ; to do a thing 
with violence is equivalent to do a thing violently. 
This shows how adverbs may arise out of cases. In 
words like the English better, the Latin vi = violenter, 
the Greek koXov = koXw^, we have adjectives in their 



ADVERBS. 277 

degrees, and substantives in their cases, with adverbial 
powers. In other words, nouns are deflected from their 
natural sense to an adverbial one. Adverbs of this kind 
are adverbs of deflection. 

Brightly^ bravely. — Here an adjective is rendered 
adverbial by the addition of the derivative syllable -ly. 
Adverbs like brightly^ (fcc, may be called adverbs of 
derivation. 

Now. — This word has not satisfactorily been shown to 
have originated as any other part of speech but as an ad- 
verb. Words of this sort are adverbs absolute. 

§ 3TT. WJien^ now, well, worse, better — here the ad- 
verbial expression consists in a single word, and is sifn- 
pie. To-day, yesterday, not at all, somewhat — here the 
adverbial expression consists of a compound word, or 
a phrase. This indicates the division of adverbs into 
simple and complex. 

§ 378. Adverbs of deflection may originally have 
been — 

a. Substantive ; as 7ieeds in such expressions as 1 
needs must go. 

b. Adjectives ; as the sun shines bright. 

c. Prepositions ; as / go in, we go out ; though, it 
should be added, that in this case we may as reasonably 
derive the preposition from the adverb as the adverb from 
the preposition. 

§ 379. Adjectives of deflection derived from substan- 
tives may originally have been — 

a. Substantives in the genitive case ; as needs. 

b. Substantives in the dative case ; as whil-om, an an- 
tiquated word meaning at tirnes, and often improperly 
spelt whilome. In such an expression as wait a while, 
the word still exists ; and while = time, or rather pause ; 
since, in Danish, hvile = rest. 



278 ADVERBS. 

Else (for ell-es) ; unawar-es ; eftsoon-s are adjectives 
in the genitive case. By rights is a word of tlie same 
sort ; tlie -s being the sign of tlie genitive singular like 
the -5 in father'^ s, and not of the accusative plural like the 
'S in fathers. 

Once (on-es) ; twice (twi-es) ; thrice {thri-es) are nu- 
merals in the genitive case. 

§ 380. Darkling. — This is no participle of a verb 
darkle^ but an adverb of derivation, like unioaringun = 
unawares, Old High German; stillinge == secretly, Mid- 
dle High German ; blindlings = blindly, Kew High Ger- 
man ; darnungo = secretly, Old Saxon ; nichtinge = hy 
night, Middle Dutch ; hlindeling = blindly. New Dutch ; 
bcBcllnga = backwards, handlunga = hand to hand, 
Anglo-Saxon ; and, finally, blindlins, backlins, darklins, 
middlins, scantlins, stridelins, stowlins, in Lowland 
Scotch. 



CERTAIN ADVERBS OF PLACE. 279 



CHAPTER XXXIV. 



ON CERTAIN ADVERBS OF PLACE. 

§ 381. It is a common practice for languages to ex- 
press by different modifications of tlie same root the three 
following ideas : — 

1. The idea of rest in a place. 

2. The idea of motion towards a place. 

3. The idea of motion /rom a place. 

This habit gives us three correlative adverbs — one of 
position, and two of direction. 

§ 382. It is also a common practice of language to de- 
part from the original expression of each particular idea, 
and to interchange the signs by which they are expressed ; 
so that a word originally expressive of simple position or 
rest in a place may be used instead of the word expres- 
sive of direction, or motion between two places. Hence 
we say, come here, when come hither would be the more 
correct expression. 

§ 383. The full amount of change in this repect may 
be seen from the following table, illustrative of the forma 
here, hither, hence. 

Moeso-Gotldc ]?ar, J>a]j, jjajiro, there, thither, thence. 

her, hi]?, hidro, here, hither, hence. 

Old High German . . . huar, huara, huanana, where, whither, whence. 

ddr, dara, danana, there, thither, thence. 

hear, h^ra, hinana, here, hither, hence. 



280 



CEETAIN ADVERBS OF PLACE. 



Old Saxon huar, huar, huanan, 

thar, thar, thanan, 
her, her, henan, 

Anglo-Saxon J'ar, ])ider, })onan, 

hvar, hvider, hvonan, 
her, hider, henan, 

Old Norse >ar, >a$ra, Jja^an, 

hvar, hvert, hraBan, 
her, heSra, he^an. 

Middle High German . da, dan, dannen, 
va, war, wannen, 
hie, her, hennen, 

Modern High German . da, dar, dannen, 

wo, wohin, -wannen^ 
hier, her, hinnen, 



where, whither, whence, 
there, thither, thence, 
here, hither, hence, 
there, thither, thence, 
where, whither, whence, 
here, hither, hence, 
there, thither, thence, 
where, whither, whence, 
here, hither, hence, 
there, thither, thence, 
ichere, whither, whence, 
here, hither, hence, 
there, thither, thence, 
where, whither, whence, 
here, hither, hence. 



§ 384. Local terminations of this kind, in general, 
were commoner in the earlier stages of language 
than at present. The following are from the Moeso 
Gothic :— 



Tnnajiro 


=from within. 


ma>r6 


= from without. 


Iu)ia})r6 


=from above. 


Fairraj^ro 


=.^from afar. 


Alla]?r6 


=^from all quarters. 



§ 385. The -ce (= es) in hen-ce, when-ce^ then-ce^ has 
yet to be satisfactorily explained. The Old English is 
ivhenn-es, thenn-es. As far, therefore, as the spelling is 
concerned, they are in the same predicament with the 
word once, which is properly on-es, the genitive of 07ie. 
This origin is probable, but not certain. 

§ 386. Yonder. — In the Moeso-Gothic we have the fol- 
lowing forms : jainar, jciina, jdn\r6 == illic, illuc, illinc. 
They do not, however, quite explain the form yon-d-er. 
It is not clear whether the c? = the -d mjaind, or the f in 
jain^ro. 



CERTAIN" ADVERBS OF PLACE. 281 

§ 387. Aiion, is used by Shakspeare, in tlie sense of 
'presently. — The probable history of this word is as fol- 
lows : the first syllable contains a root akin to the root 
yon^ signifying distaiice in place. The second is a 
shortened form of the Old High German and Middle 
High German, -nt^ a termination expressive, 1, of re- 
moval in space ; 2, of removal in time ; Old High Ger- 
man, enojit, ennont ; Middle High German, enentligy 
jeniint = beyond. 



282 WHEN, THENj AND THAN, 



CHAPTER XXXY. 

ON WHEN, THEN, AND THAN. 

§ 388. The Anglo-Saxon adverbs are whenne and 
\enne — lohen^ then. 

The masculine accusative cases of tlie relative and 
demonstrative pronoun are hiocene {hwone) and \cBne 
iyone). 

Notwithstanding the difference, the first form is a 
variety of the second ; so that the adverbs when and then 
are really pronominal in origin. 

§ 389. As to the word than^ the conjunction of com- 
parison, it is another form of then : the notions of order ^ 
sequence, and comparison being allied. 

This is good ; then (or next in order) that is good, is 
an expression sufficiently similar to this is better than 
that to have given rise to it ; and in Scotch and certain 
provincial dialects we actually find th^^n instead of th^n. 



PREPOSITIONS AND CONJUNCTIONS. 288 



CHAPTER XXXYI. 

PREPOSITIONS AND CONJUNCTIONS. 

§ 390. Prepositions. — Prepositions are wholly unsus- 
ceptible of inflection. 

§ 391. Conjunctions. — Conjunctions, like prepositions, 
are Tyholly unsusceptible of inflection. 

§ 392. Ye^, no. — Although 7iot may be considered to 
be an adverb, nor a conjunction, and none a noun, these 
two words, the direct categorical affirmative, and the direct 
categorical negative, are referable to none of the current 
parts of speech. Accurate grammar places them in a 
class by themselves. 

§ 393. Particles. — The word particle is a collective 
term for all those parts of speech that are naturally un- 
susceptible of inflection ; comprising, 1, interjections ; 
2, direct categorical affirmatives ; 3, direct categorical 
negatives ; 4, absolute conjunctions ; 5, absolute preposi- 
tions ; 6, adverbs unsusceptible of degrees of comparison ; 
7, inseparable prefixes. 



284 THE WOEDS MINE AND THINE. 



CHAPTER XXXVII. 

ON THE GRAMMATICAL POSITION OF THE WORDS MINE ANB 

THINE. 

§ 394. The inflection of pronouns lias its natural pe- 
culiarities in language. It lias also its natural difl^iculties 
in philology. These occur not in one language in particu- 
lar, but in all generally. 

The most common peculiarity in the grammar of pro- 
nouns is the fact of what may he called their convertibili- 
ty. Of this convertibility the following statements serve 
as illustration : — 

1. Of case. — In our own language the words my and 
thy although at present possessives, were previously da- 
tives, and, earlier still, accusatives. Again, the accusa- 
tive you replaces the nominative ye, and vice versa. 

2. Of juijnber. — The words thou and thee are, except 
in the mouths of Quakers, obsolete. The plural forms, 
ye and you, have replaced them. 

3. Of perso?i. — The Greek language gives us exam- 
ples of this in the promiscuous use of vcv, [jllv, cr^e, and 
eavTov ] whilst sich and sik are used with a similar lati 
tude in the Middle High German and Scandinavian. 

4. Of class. — The demonstrative pronouns become — 

a. Personal pronouns. 

b. Relative pronouns. 

c. Articles. 



THE WORDS MINE AND THINE. 285 

The reflective pronoun often becomes reciprocal. 

§ 395. These statements are made for the sake of 
illustrating, not of exhausting, the subject. It follows, 
however, as an inference from them, that the classification 
of pronouns is complicated. Even if we knew the origin- 
al power and derivation of every form of every pronoun 
in a language, it would be far from an easy matter to de- 
termine therefrom the paradigm that they should take in 
grammar. To place a word according to its power in a 
late stage of language might confuse the study of an 
early stage. To say that because a word was once in a 
given class, it should always be so, would be to deny that 
in the present English they^ these^ and she are personal 
pronouns at all 

The two tests, then, of the grammatical place of a pro- 
noun, its present poroer and its original power, are often 
conflicting. 

§ 396. In the English language the point of most im- 
portance in this department of grammar is the place of 
forms like ?nine and thine ; in other words, of the forms 
in -n. 

Now, if we take up the common grammars of the 
English language as it is, we find, that, whilst my and thy 
are dealt with as genitive cases, 'mine and thine are con- 
sidered adjectives. In the Anglo-Saxon grammars, how- 
ever, min and '^in, the older forms of mine and thine, are 
treated as genitives or possessives. 

§ 397. This gives us two views of the words my and 
thy. 

a. They may be genitives or possessives, which were 
originally datives or accusatives ; in which case they are 
deduced from the Anglo-Saxon mec and pec. 

h. They may be the Anglo-Saxon min and fi;?, minus 
the final -n. 



286 THE ^ORDS MIXE AKD THINE. 

Eacli of these views has respectable supporters. The 
former is decidedly preferred by the present Tvriter. 

§ 398. What, howeyer, are thine and mine 7 Are they 
adjectives like meus^ tints, and suus, or cases like mei, 
tui, siii, in Latin, and his in English ? 

It is no answer to say that sometimes they are one 
and sometimes the other. They were not so originally. 
They did not begin with meaning two things at once ; 
on the contrary, they were either possessive cases, of 
which the power became subsequently adjectival, or 
adjectives, of which the power became subsequently 
possessive. 

§ 399. In Anglo-Saxon and in Old Saxon there is but 
one form to express the Latin 9nei (or tui), on the one side, 
and mens, mea, meum (or tiius, &c.), on the other. In 
several other Gothic tongues, however, there was the fol- 
lowing^ difference of form : 



Mceso-Gotldc meina = mei as opposed to meins = meus. 

]?eiaa = tid Jieins = tuus. 

Old High GermoM . , min == mei miner = meiis. 

din = tui diner = tuus. 

Old Norse . . . min = mei minn = meus. 

ym = tui Jinn = tuus. 

Middle Dutch mins = mei min = meus, 

dins =^ tui din = tuus. 

Modern High German . . mein = mei meiner = meus. 

dein = tui . . ... . deiner == tuus. 



In these differences of form lie the best reasons for the 
assumption of a genitive case, as the origin of an adjec- 
tival form ; and, undoubtedly, in those languages where 
both forms occur, it is convenient to consider one as a case 
and one as an adjective. 

§ 400. "But this is not the present question. In An- 



THE WORDS MINE AXD THIXE. 287 

glo-Saxon there is but one form, min and ^^in= wed and 
meus, tui and tiuis, inelifferently. Is this form an oblique 
case or an adjective? 

This involves two sorts of evidence. 

§ 401. Etymological evidence. — Assuming two pow- 
ers for the words min and \in, one genitive, and one ad- 
jectival, which is the original one? Or, going beyond 
the Anglo-Saxon, assuming that of two forms like 
7neina and 7?ieins, the one has been derived from the 
other, which is the primitive, radical, primary, or original 
one? 

Men, from whom it is generally unsafe to differ, con 
sider that the adjectival form is the derived one ; and, 
as far as forms like miner, as opposed to 772in, are 
concerned, the evidence of the foregoing list is in 
their favour. 'But what is the case with the -Middle 
Dutch? The genitive ?nins is evidently the derivative of 
?mn. 

The reason why the forms like ininei" seem derived 
is because they are longer and more complex than the 
others. Nevertheless, it is by no means an absolute rule 
in philology that the least compound form is the oldest. 
A word may be adapted to a secondary meaning by a 
change in its parts in the way of omission, as well as by a 
change in the way of addition. 

§ 402. As to the question whether it is most likely for 
an adjective to be derived from a case, or a case from an 
adjective, it may be said, that philology furnishes instances 
both ways. Ours is a case derived, in syntax at least, 
from an adjective. Cujiun (as in ciijum peciis) and ses- 
iertium are Latin instances of a nominative case being 
evolved from an oblique one. 

§ 403. Si/ntactic evidence. — If in Anglo-Saxon we 
found such expressions as dcil ?nin = pars ?nei. half ]>in 



288 THE TTORDS MINE AND THINE. 

= dimidiu77i tui, we should have a reason, as far as it 
went, for believing in the existence of a true genitive. 
Such instances, however, have yet to be quoted. 

§ 404. Again — as min and ]>m are declined like ad- 
jectives, even as mens and tuus are so declined, we have 
means of ascertaining their nature from the form they 
take in certain constructions; thus, mznra = meorum, 
and 'Hiinve = mese, are the genitive plural and the dative 
singular respectively. Thus, too, the Anglo-Saxon for 
of thy eyes should be eagena yinra, and the Anglo- 
Saxon for to my widow, should be wudiiwan minre ; 
just as in Latin, they would be oculoriun tuorum, and 
viduce mece. 

If, however, instead of this we find such expressions as 
eagena ]>in, or wuduwan min, we find evidence in favour 
of a genitive case ; for then the construction is not one of 
concord, but one of government, and the words J?m and 
m.in must be construed as the Latin forms tui and Tnei 
would be in oculorinn mei, and mduce mei ; viz. : as gen- 
itive cases. Now, whether a sufficient proportion of such 
constructions exist or not, they have not yet been brought 
forward. 

Such instances, even if quoted, would not be con- 
clusive. 

§ 405. Yf hy would they not be conclusive ? Because 
even of the adjective there are uninflected forms. 

As early as the Moeso-Gothic stage of our lan- 
guage, we find rudiments of this omission of the inflection. 
The possessive pronouns in the neuter singular some- 
times take the inflection, sometimes appear as crude 
forms, nim thata hadi theinata = apov aov rov Kpd/3- 
,6aTov (Mark ii. 9), opposed to 7iim thata hadi thein, 
two verses afterwards. So also with 7nein and meinata. 
It is remarkable that this omission should begin with 



THE WORDS MINE AKD THINE. 289 

forms so marked as those of the neuter {-ata). It has, 
perhaps, its origin in the adverbial character of that 
gender. 

Old High German. — Here the nominatives, both 
masculine and feminine, lose the inflection, whilst the 
neuter retains it — thin dohter, sin quenct^ min dohter, 
sinaz lib. In a few cases, when the pronoun comes after, 
even the oblique cases drop the inflection. 

Middle High German. — Preceding the noun, the no- 
minative of all genders is destitute of inflection ; sin lib, 
min ere, din lib, &c. Following the nouns, the obHque 
cases do the same ; ine herse sin. The influence of po- 
sition should here be noticed. Undoubtedly a place after 
the substantive influences the omission of the inflection. 
This appears in its maximum in the Middle High Ger- 
man. In Moeso-Gothic we have mein leik and leik mein- 
ata. 

§ 406. Now by assuming the extension of the Middle 
High German omission of the inflection to the Anglo- 
Saxon ; and by supposing it to affect the words in ques- 
tion in all positions {i. e., both before and after their 
nouns), we may explain the constructions in question, in 
case they occur. But, as already stated, no instances of 
them have been quoted. 

To suppose two adjectival forms, one inflected {min, 
minre, &c.), and one uninflected, or common to all genders 
and both numbers (min), is to suppose no more than is the 
case with the uninflected f e, as compared with the in- 
flected ]>CBt. 

§ 407. Hence, the evidence required in order to make 
a single instance of min or ^in, the necessary/ equivalents 
to mei and tui, rather than to mens and tuus, must con- 
sist in the quotation from the Anglo-Saxon of some 

14 



290 THE WORDS MINE AND THINE. 

text, wherein mm or ]>in occurs with, a feminine sub- 
stantive, in an oblique case, the pronoun preceding the 
noun. When this has been done, it will be time enough 
to treat mine and thine as the equivalents to mei and tui, 
rather than as those to mens and tuus. 



CONSTITUTION OF WEAK PR^TEEITE. 291 



CHAPTER XXXVIII. 

ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE WEAK PRETERITE. 

§ 408. The remote origin of the weak praeterite in -d 
or -f, has been considered by Grimm. He maintains 
that it is the d in d-d, the reduplicate preterite of do. 
In all the Gothic languages the termination of the past 
tense is either -da, -ta, -de, ~^i, -d, -t, or -ed, for the 
singular, and -don, -ton, -tumes, or -"^um, for the plural ; 
in other words, d, or an allied sound, appears once, if 
not oftener. In the plural prseterite of the Moeso- Gothic, 
however, we have something more, viz., the termination 
-dedum ; as nas-idedum, nas-idedu^, nas-idedun, from 
nas-ja ; sok-idedum, s6k-idedu]>, sok-iddmn, from sok-ja ; 
salb-odedum, salh-odedu^, salb-odedun, from salbo. Here 
there is a second d. The same takes place with the dual 
form salh-odeduts, and with the subjunctive forms, salb- 
ddedjan, salb-odeduts, salb-odedi, salb-odedeits, salb- 
odedeima, salb-ddedei]>, salb-Sdedina. The English 
phrase, we did salve, as compared with salb-odedum., is 
confirmatory of this. 

§ 409. Some remarks of Dr. Trithen's on the Sla- 
vonic praeterite, in the " Ti;^nsactions of the Philological 
Society," induce me to prefer a different doctrine, and to 
identify the -d in words like moved, &c., with the -t of the 
passive participles of the Latin language; as found in 
mon-27-us, Yoc-at-us, rap-^us, and probably in Greek forma 
like TV(p-6-6L^, 



292 COKSTITUTIOX OF WEAK TE^TEEITE. 

1. The SlaYonic pr^eterite is commonly said to possess 
genders : in otlier ^ords, there is one form for speaking 
of a past action when done bj a male^ and another for 
speaking of a past action when done by a female. 

2. These forms are identical with those of the partici- 
ples; masculine or feminine, as the case may be. Indeed 
the prseterite is a participle. If, instead of saying ille 
amavit, the Latins said ille amatus, whilst, instead of 
saying ilia amavit. they said ilia ajjiata, they would exactly 
use the grammar of the Slavonians. 

3. Hence, as one class of languages, at least, gives us 
the undoubted fact of an active praeterite being identical 
with a passive participle, and as the participle and 
praeterite in question are nearly identical, we have a fair 
reason for believing that the d, in the English active 
praeterite, is the d of the participle, which in its turn, is 
the t of the Latin passive participle. 

§ 410. The following extract gives Dr. Trithen's re- 
marks on the Slavonic verb in his own words : — 

" A peculiarity which distinguishes the grammar of all the Slavish 
languages, consists in the use of the past participle, taken in an active 
sense, for the purpose of expressing the praeterite. This participle 
generally ends in /; and much uncertainty prevails both as to its origin 
and its relations, though the termination has been compared by various 
philologists -with similar ajBSses in the Sanscrit, and the classical lan- 
guages. 

" In the Old Slavish, or the language of the church, there are three 
methods of expressing the past tense : one of them consists in the union of 
the verb substantive vrith the participle ; as, 

JieJc esmf .... chital esmi' 
Rek esi' .... chital esi' 
Reh est! .... chital esf. 

** In the coiTesponding tense of the Slavonic dialect 'vre have the verb 
substantive placed before the participle : 



CONSTITUTION OF WEAK PEJETEKITE. 



293 



Ya sam imao . . . mi' smo imali 
Ti si imao . . . vi' ste imali 

On ye imao . . . omi su imali. 

* In the Polish it appears as a suffix : 

Czytalem . . . czytalismy 

Czytales . czytaliscie 
Czytal . . czytalie. 

" And ia the Servian it follows the participle : 



Igrao sam 
Igrao si . 
Igrao ye 



igraii stno 
igrali ste 
igraii su. 



" The ending -ao, of igrao and hnao^ stands for the Russian al, as in 
Borne English dialects a' is used for allJ^ 



PART V. 



STIS^TAX. 



CHAPTER I. 



ON SYNTAX IN GENERAL. 



§ 411. The word syntax is derived from the Greek 
syn {ivith or together) and taxis (arrangement). It 
relates to the arrangement, or putting together, of words. 
Two or more words must be used before there can be any 
application of syntax. 

There is to me a father. — Here we have a circumlo- 
cution equivalent to / have a father. In the English 
lano;ua2;e the circumlocution is unnatural. In the Latin 
it is common. To determine this, is a matter of idiom 
rather than of syntax. 

§ 412. In the English, as in all other languages, it is 
convenient to notice certain so-called figures of speech. 
They always furnish convenient modes of expression, and 
sometimes, as in the case of the one immediately about to 
be noticed, account for facts. 

§ 413. Personification. — The ideas of apposition and 
collectiveness account for the apparent violations of the 
concord of number. The idea of personification applies 
to the concord of gender. A masculine or feminine 



SYNTAX m GENERAL. 295 

gender, characteristic of persons, may be substituted for 
the neuter gender, characteristic of things. In this case 
the term is said to be personified. 

The cities who aspired to liberty. — A personification 
of the idea expressed by cities is here necessary to justify 
the expression. 

It^ the sign of the neuter gender, as applied to a male 
or female child^ is the reverse of the process. 

§ 414. Ellipsis (from the Greek elleip>ein = to fall 
short), or a falling" shorty occurs in sentences like I sent 
to the hookseller^s. Here the word shop or house is 
understood. Expressions like to go on all fours, and to 
eat of the fruit of the tree, are reducible to ellipses. 

§ 415. Pleonasm (from the Greek pleonazein = to be 
in excess) occurs in sentences like the king, he reigns. 
Here the word he is superabundant. 

My banks, they are furnished, — the most straitest 
sect, — these are pleonastic expressions. In the king, he 
reigns, the word king is in the same predicament as in 
the king, God bless him. 

The double negative, allowed in Greek and Anglo- 
Saxon, but not admissible in English, is pleonastic. 

The verb do, in / do speak, is not pleonastic. In 
respect to the sense it adds intensity. In respect to the 
construction it is not in apposition, but in the same pre- 
dicament with verbs like must and should, as in / must 
go, &c. ; i. e., it is a verb followed by an infinitive. This 
we know from its power in those languages where the in- 
finitive has a characteristic sign ; as, in German, 

Die Augen thaten ihm winken. — Goethe. 

Besides this, make is similarly used in Old English, 
— But men m^ake draw the branch thereof, and beren 
him to be graffed at Babyloyne. — Sir J. Mandeville. 

§ 416. The figure zeugma. — They wear a garment 



296 SYNTAX IN GENERAL. 

like that of the Scythians^ hut a language peculiar to 
themselves, — The verb, naturally applying to garment 
only, is liere used to govern language. This is called in 
Greek, zeugma (junction). 

§ 417. My paternal home was made desolate^ and he 
himself was sacrificed. — The sense of this is plain ; he 
means my father. Yet no such substantive as /a^Aer has 
gone before. It is supplied, ho^wever, from the word 
paternal. The sense indicated by paternal gives us a 
subject to which he can refer. In other words, the word 
he is understood, according to what is indicated, rather 
than according to what is expressed. This figure in Greek 
is called pros to sem^ainomenon {according to the thing 
indicated). 

§ 418. — Apposition^ — Ccesary the Roman emperor ^ in- 
vades Britain. — Here the words Roman e7nperor explain, 
or define, the word Ccesar ; and the sentence, filled up, 
might stand, Ccesar, that is, the Roman emperor, &c. 
Again, the word Roman emperor might be wholly 
ejected ; or, if not ejected, they might be thrown into a 
parenthesis. The practical bearing of this fact is ex- 
hibited by changing the form of the sentence, and insert- 
ing the conjunction and. In this case, instead of one 
person, two are spoken of, and the verb invades must be 
changed from the singular to the plural. 

Now the words Roman emperor are said to be in 
apposition to Ccesar. They constitute, not an additional 
idea, but an explanation of the original one. They are, 
as it were, laid alongside {appositi) of the word Ccesar. 
Cases of doubtful numbef, wherein two substantives pre- 
cede a verb, and wherein it is uncertain whether the verb 
should be singular or plural, are decided by determining 
whether the substantives be in apposition or the contrary. 
No matter how many nouns there may be, as long as it 



SYNTAX IN GENERAL. 297 

can be shown that they are in apposition, the verb is 
in the singular number. 

§ 419. Collectiveness as opposed to plurality. — In 
sentences like the meeting was large, the multitude pur- 
sue pleasure, meeting and multitude are each collective 
nouns ; that is, although they present the idea of a 
single object, that object consists of a plurality of indi- 
viduals. Hence, pursue is put in the plural number. 
To say, however, the meeting were large would sound 
improper. The number of the verb that shall accom- 
pany a collective noun depends upon whether the idea of 
the multiplicity of individuals, or that of the unity of the 
aggregate, shall predominate. 

Sand and salt and a mass of iro?i is easier to bear 
than a man without understanding. — Let sand and salt 
and a m^ass ^ iron be dealt with as a series of things the 
aggregate of which forms a mixture, and the expression is 
allowable. 

The king and the lords and commons forms an ex- 
cellent frame of government. — Here the expression is 
doubtful. Substitute with for the first and, and there is 
no doubt as to the propriety of the singular form is. 

§ 420. The reduction of complex forms to simple ones. 
— Take, for instance, the current illustration, viz., the- 
king-of Saxony^ s army. — Here the assertion is, not that 
the army belongs to Saxony, but that it belongs to the 
king of Saxony ; which words must, for the sake of 
taking a true view of the construction, be dealt with as a 
single word in the possessive case. Here two cases are 
dealt with as one ; and a complex term is treated as a 
single word. 

The same reason applies to phrases like the ttoo 
king Williams. If we say the two kings William, we 
must account for the phrase by apposition. 
14* 



298 SYNTAX IN GENEEAL. 

§ 421. True notion of the part of speech in use. — In 
he is gone, the word gone must be considered as equiva- 
lent to absent ; that is, as an adjective. Otherwise the 
expression is as incorrect as the expression she is eloped. 
Strong participles are adjectival oftener than weak ones^: 
their form being common to many adjectives. 

True notion of the original form. — In the phrase / 
must speak, the word speak in an infinitive. In the 
phrase / am forced to speak, the word speak is (in the 
present English) an infinitive also. In one case, how- 
ever, it is preceded by to; whilst in the other, the 
particle to is absent. The reason for this lies in the 
original difi'erence of form. Speak — to = the Anglo- 
Saxon sprecan, a simple infinitive ; to speak, or speak +• 
to = the Anglo-Saxon to sprecanne, an infinitive in the 
dative case. 

§ 422. Convertibility. — In the English language, the 
greater part of the words may, as far as their form is 
concerned, be one part of speech as well as another. 
Thus the combinations s-a-n-th, or f-r-e-n-k, if they 
existed at all, might exist as either nouns or verbs, as 
either substantives or adjectives, as conjunctions, ad- 
verbs, or prepositions. This is not the case in the 
Greek languages. There, if a word be a substantive, it 
will probably end in -s ; if an infinitive verb, in -ein, (fee. 
The bearings of this difi'erence between languages like 
the English and languages like the Greek will soon 
appear. 

At present, it is sufficient to say that a word, origi- 
nally one part of speech (e.g., a noun), may become 
another (e. g., a verb). This may be called the converti 
bility of words. 

There is an etymological convertibility, and a syn- 
tactic convertibility ; and although, in some cases, the 



SYNTAX m GENERAL. 299 

line of demarcation is not easily drawn between them, tlie 
distinction is intelligible and convenient. 

§ 423. Etymological convertibility . — The words then 
and thauj now adverbs or conjunctions, were once cases : 
in other words, they have been converted from one part ol 
speech to another. Or, they may even be said to be caseSj 
at the present moment ; although only in an historical 
point of view. For the practice of language, they are not 
only adverbs or conjunctions, but they are adverbs or con- 
junctions exclusively. 

§ 424. Syntactic convertibility. — The combination to 
err^ is at this moment an infinitive verb. Neverthe- 
less it can be used as the equivalent to the substantive 
error. 

To err is human = error is human. Now this is an 
instance of syntactic conversion. Of the two meanings, 
there is no doubt as to which is the primary one ; which 
primary meaning is part and parcel of the language at 
this moment. 

The infinitive, when used as a substantive, can be used 
in a singular form only. 

To err = error ; but we have no such form as to errs 
= errors. Nor is it wanted. The infinitive, in a sub- 
stantival sense, always conveys a general statement, so 
that even when singular, it has a plural power ; just as 
m,an is mortal^ men are mortal. 

§ 425. The adjective used as a substantive. — Of these, 
we have examples in expressions like the blacks of Africa 
— the bitters and sweets of life — all fours were put to the 
ground. These are true instances of conversion, and are 
proved to be so by the fact of their taking a plural 
form. 

Let the blind lead the blind is not an instance of 
conversion. The word blind in both instances remains 



300 • SYls^TAX IN GEKEEAL. 

an adjective, and is shown to remain so by its being unin- 
flected. 

§ 426. Uninflected parts of speech, used as s^cbstan- 
tive. — When King Richard III. says, 7ione of your ifs, 
he uses the word if as a substantive = expressions of 
doitht. 

So in the expression one long now, the word now = 
present time. 

§ 427. The convertibility of words in English is very 
great ; and it is so because the structure of the language 
favours it. As few words have any peculiar signs expres- 
sive of their being particular parts of speech, interchange 
is easy, and conversion follows the logical association of 
ideas unimpeded. 

The convertibility of words is in the inverse ratio to 
the amount of their inflection. 



SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES. 301 



CHAPTER 11. 



SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES. 



§ 428. The phenomena of convertibility have been 
already explained. 

The remaining points connected with the syntax of 
substantives, are chiefly points of ellipsis. 

Ellipsis rf substantives. — The historical view of 
phrases, like Riindell and Bridge's, St. PaiiVs, &c., 
shows that this ellipsis is common to the English and the 
other Gothic languages. Furthermore, it shows that it is 
met with in languages not of the Gothic stock ; and, 
finally, that the class of words to which it applies, is, 
there or thereabouts, the same generally. 

§ 429. The following phrases are referable to a differ- 
ent class of relations — 

1. Right and left — supply hand. This is, probably, a 
real ellipsis. The words right and left, have not yet be- 
come true substantives ; inasmuch as they have no plural 
forms. In this respect they stand in contrast with hitter 
and sxoeet ; ina.smuch as we can say he has tasted both 
the bitters a?id siceets of life. Nevertheless, the expres- 
sion can be refined on. 

2. All fours. To go on all fours. No elHpsis. 
Ihe word fo7irs is a true substantive, as proved by its 
ft^i?*,e»«;e as a plural. 



802 SYNTAX OF ADJEOTIVES. 



CHAPTER III. 



SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 



§ 430. Pleonasm. — Pleonasm can take place with ad- 
jectives only in the expression of the degrees of compari- 
son. Over and above the etymological signs of the com- 
parative and superlative degrees, there may be used the 
superlative words more and Tnost, 

And this pleonasm really occurs — 

The more serener spirit. 
The most straitest sect. 

These are instances of pleonasm in the strictest sense 
of the term. 

§ 431. Collocation. — As a general rule, the adjective 
precedes the substantive — a good maUj not a man good. 

When, however, the adjective is qualified by either the 
expression of its degree, or accompanied by another adjec- 
tive, it may follow ths substantive — 

A man just and good. 

A •v^oman wise and fair. 

A hero devoted to his country. 

A patriot disinterested to a great degree. 

Single simple adjectives thus placed after their sub- 
stantive, belong to the poetry of England, and especially 
to the ballad poetry — sighs profound' — the leaves green. 

§ 432. Government. — The only adjective that governs 
a case, is the word like.' In the expression, this is like 



SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 803 

him^ (fee, the original power of the dative remains. This 
Ave infer — 

1. From the fact that in most languages which have 
inflections to a sufficient extent, the word meaning like 
governs a dative case. 

2. That if ever we use in English any preposition at 
all to express similitude, it is the preposition to — like to 
me, like to death, <fcc. 

Expressions like full of meat, good for John, are by 
no means instances of the government of adjectives ; the 
really governing words being the prepositions to and for 
respectively. 

§ 433. The positive degree preceded by the adjective 
more, is equivalent to the comparative form — e. g., more 
wise = iviser. 

The reasons for employing one expression in prefer- 
ence to the other, depend upon the nature of •the particu- 
lar word used. 

When the word is at one and the same time of Anglo> 
Saxon origin and monosyllabic, there is no doubt about 
the preference to be given to the form in -er. Thus, 
wis-er is preferable to m^ore ivise. 

When, however, the word is compound, or trisyllabic, 
the combination with the word more, is preferable. 

more fruitful fruitfuller. 

more villainous .... villanouser. 

Between these two extremes there are several inter 
mediate forms, wherein the use of one rather than another 
will depend upon the taste of the writer. The question, 
however, is a question of euphony, rather than of aught 
else. It is also illustrated by the principle of not multi- 
plying secondary elements. In such a word as fruitfidl' 
er, there are two additions to the root. The same is the 
case with the superlative, fruit-full-est. 



804 syitolX of adjectives. 

§ 434. In the Chapter on the Comparative Degree is 
indicated a refinement upon the current notions as to the 
power of the comparative degree, and reasons are given 
for believing that the fundamental notion expressed by the 
comparative inflexion is the idea of comparison or contrast 
between tivo objects. 

In this case, it is better in speaking of only two 
objects to use the comparative degree rather than the 
superlative — even when we use the definite article the. 
Thus— 

This \s> the better of the two 

is preferable to 

This is the best of the two. 

This principle is capable of an application more exten- 
sive than our habits of speaking and writing will verify. 
Thus to go to other parts of speech, we should logically 
say- 
rather than 



"Whether of the two. 



Which of the two. 
Either the father or the son, 

but not 

Either the father, the son, or the daughter. 

This statement may be refined on. It is chiefly made 
for the sake of giving fresh prominence to the idea of 
duality, expressed by the terminations -er and -ter, 

§ 435. The absence of inflection simplifies the syntax 
of adjectives. Violations of concord are impossible. We 
could not make an adjective disagree with its substantive 
'f we wished. 



SYNTAX OF PRONOUKS. 805 



CHAPTER IV. 



SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS, 



§ 436. Pleonasm in the syntax of pronouns. — In the 
following sentences tlie words in- italics are pleonastic : 

1. The king he is just. 

2. I saw her, the queen. 

3. The men, they were there. 

4. The king, his crown. 

Of these forms, the first is more common than the 
second and third, and the fourth more common than the 
first. 

§ 437. The fourth has another element of importance. 
It has given rise to the ahsurd notion that the genitive 
case in -s {father- s) is a contraction from his {father his). 

To say nothing about the inapplicability of this rule to 
feminine genders, and plural numbers, the whole history 
of the Indo-Germanic languages is against it. 

1. "We cannot reduce the queen's majesty to the queen 
his majesty. 

2. We cannot reduce the children's bread to the child- 
ren his bread.. 

3. The Anglo-Saxon forms are in -es, not in his. 

4. The word his itself must be accounted for ; and 
that cannot be done by assuming it to be he + his. 

5. The -s in father's is the -is in patris, and the -oj 
in TTajipo^. 



306 SYNTAX OF PEONOUNS. 

§ 438. The preceding examples illustrate an apparent 
paradox, viz., the fact of pleonasm and ellipsis being 
closely allied. The king he is just, dealt with as a single 
sentence, is undoubtedly pleonastic. But it is not neces- 
sary to be considered as a mere simple sentence. The 
king — may represent a first sentence incomplete, whilst 
he is just represents a second sentence in full. What is 
pleonasm in a smp^.n, sentence is ellipsis in a double one. 



TEUE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 307 



CHAPTER V. 

THE TRUE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

§ 439. Personal pronouns. — The use of the second 
person plural instead of the seeond singular has been 
noticed already. This use of one number for another is 
current throughout the Gothic languages. A pronoun so 
used is conveniently called the pronomen reverentice. 

§ 440. Dativus ethicus. — In the phrase 
Rob me the exchequer, — Henry IV., 

the me is expletive, and is equivalent to for me. This ex- 
pletive use of the dative is conveniently called the dativus 
ethicus. 

§ 441. The reflected personal pronoun.— In the Eng- 
lish language there is no equivalent to the Latin se, the 
German sich, and the Scandinavian sik, and sig. 

It follows from this that the word self is used to a 
greater extent than would otherwise be the case. 

I strike me is awkward, but not ambiguous. 

Thou strikest thee is awkward, but not ambiguous. 

He strikes him is ambiguous ; inasmuch as him may 
mean either the person who strikes or some one else. In 
order to be clear we add the word self when the idea is 
reflective. He strikes himself is, at once idiomatic and 
unequivocal. 

So it is with the plural persons. 

We strike us is awkward, but not ambiguous. 



303 TEUE PEESOXAL PEOXOUXS. 

Ye strike you is tlie same. 

They strike them is ambiguous. 

This slices the value of a reflective pronoun for the 
thii'cl person. - 

As a general rule, therefore, vrhenever Tve lise a verb 
reflectively Tve use the "^ord self in combination with the 
personal pronoun. 

Yet this vras not always the case. The use of the 
simple personal pronoun was current in Anglo-Saxon, and 
that, not onlv for the first two persons, but for the third as 
well. 

The exceptions to this rule are either poetical expres- 
sions, or imperative moods. 

He sat fdm do-'ivn at a pillar's base. — BrEOX. 
Sit thee do-'Mi. 

§ 442. Reflective neuters, — In the phrase I strike me, 
the verb strike is transitive : in other words, the word 
me expresses the object of an action, and the meaning is 
different from the meaning of the simple ex]^)ression 1 
strike. 

In the phrase I fear me (used by Lord Campbell in 
his lives of the Chancellors), the verb /ear is intransitive 
or neuter : in other words, the word me (unless, indeed, 
fear mean terrify), expresses no object of any action at 
all : whilst the meaning is the same as in the simple ex- 
pression I fear. 

Here the reflective pronoun appears out of place, i. e., 
after a neuter or intransitive verb. 

Such a use, however, is but the fragment of an exten- 
sive system of reflective verbs thus formed, developed in 
different degrees in the different Gothic languages ; but 
in all more than in the English. 

§ 443. Equivocal reflectives. — The proper place of the 
reflective is after the verb. 



TRUE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 809 

The proper place of the governing pronoun is, in the 
indicative and subjunctive moods, before the verb. 

Hence in expressions like the preceding there is no 
doubt as to the power of the pronoun. 

The imperative mood, however, sometimes presents a 
complication. Here the governing person may follow the 
verb. 

Mount ye = either he mounted^ or mount yourselves. 
In phrases like this, and in phrases 

Bicah ye, busk ye, my bonny, bonny bride, 
Busk ye, husk ye, my winsome marrow, 

the construction is ambiguous. Ye may either be a no- 
minative case governing the verb husk^ or an accusative 
case governed by it. 

This is an instance of what may be called the equivocal 
reflective. 



310 5H3 SYNTAX OF 



CHAPTER VI. 

ON THE SYNTAX OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS, AND THE 
PRONOUNS OF THE THIRD PERSON. 

§ 444. As his and her are genitive cases (and not 
adjectives), there is no need of explaining such combina- 
tions as his mother^ her father, inasmuch as no concord of 
gender is expected. The expressions are respectively 
equivalent to 

mater ejus, not mater sua ; 
pater ejus, — pater suus. 

§ 445. It has been stated that its is a secondary 
genitive, and it may be added, that it is of late 
origin in the language. The Anglo-Saxon form was 
his, the genitive of he for the neuter and masculine 
equally. Hence, when, in the old writers, we meet his, 
where we expect its, we must not suppose that any per- 
sonification takes place, but simply that the old genitive 
common to the two genders is used in preference to 
the modern one limited to the neuter, and irregularly 
formed. 

The following instances are the latest specimens of its 
use : 

" The apoplexy is, as I take it, a kind of lethargy. I have read the 
cause of his effects in Galen ; i^ is a kind of deafness." — 2 Henry IV 
I 2. 



THE DEMONSTKATIVE PRONOUNS. 311 

" If the salt have lost his savour, wherewith shall it be seasoned ? It 
is neither fit for the land, nor yet for the dunghill ; but men cast it out." 
— Zulce xiv. 35. 

" Some aflSrm that every plant has his particular fly or caterpillar, 
which it breeds and feeds." — Walton's Angler. 

" This rule is not so general, but that it admitteth of his exceptionsw" 
— Carew. 



812 ox THE TTOED SELF. 



CHAPTER VIL 

ox THE COXSTHrCTIOX OF THE AVORD SELF. 

§ 446. The undoubted constructions of the word self, 
in- the present state of the cultivated English, are three- 
fold. 

1. Government.— In myself thyself, ourselves, and 
yourselves, the construction is that of a common sub- 
stantive vrith an adjective or genitive case. Myself 
= 7ny individuality, and is similarly construed — mea 
individualitas (or fersond), or mei individualitas (or 
fersona). 

2. Apposition. — In himself and them^selves, when ac- 
cusative, the construction is that of a substantive in 
apposition with a pronoun. Himself = him, the in- 
dividual. 

3. Co?72position. — It is only, however, when himself 
and theinselves, are in the accusative case, that the con- 
struction is appositional. "When they are used as 7io~ 
minatives, it must be explained on another principle. In 
phrases like 

^e A?ms(?Z/'vas present 
They themselves '^ere present, 

there is neither apposition nor government ; him and 
them, being neither related to 7ny and thy, so as to be 
governed, nor yet to he and they, so as to form an ap- 
position. In order to come under one of these con- 
ditions, the phrases should be either he his self {they 



ON THE WOED SELF. 313 

their selves), or else he he self {fhey they selves). In this 
difficulty, the only logical view that can he taken of the 
matter, is to consider the words himself Sind themselves, 
not as two words, but as a single word compounded ; and 
even then, the compound will be of an irregular kind ; 
inasmuch as the inflectional element -m, is dealt with as 
part and parcel of the root. 

§ 447. Herself — The construction here is ambiguous. 
It is one of the preceding constructions. Which, however 
it is, is uncertain ; since her may be either a so-called 
genitive, like my, or an accusative like him. 

Itself — is also ambiguous. The s may represent the 
-5 in its, as well as the s- in self 

This inconsistency is as old as the Anglo-Saxon stage 
of the English language. 



15 



314 POSSESSIVE PEOI^OUNS, 



CHAPTER YIIL 



ON THE POSSESSIVE PROXOUNS. 



§ 448. The possessive pronouns fall into two classes. 
The first contains the forms like my and thy^ &c. ; the 
second, those like mine and thine^ &c. 

My^ thy^ his (as in his hook), her, its (as in its hook), 
our, your, their, are conveniently considered as the 
equivalents to the Latin forms m,ei, tui, ejus, nostrum^, 
vestriim, eorum. 

Mine, thine, his (as in the hook is his), hers, ours, 
yours, theirs are conveniently considered as the equi- 
valents to the Latin forms mens, mea, meum ; tuus, tua, 
tuum ; suus, sua, suum ; noster, nostra, nostrum ; vester, 
vestra, vestrum. 

§ 449. There is a difference between the construction 
of my and mine. "We cannot say this is mine hat, and 
we cannot say this hat is my. Nevertheless, this differ- 
ence is not explained by any change of construction 
from that of adjectives to that of cases. As far as the 
syntax is concerned the construction of my and mine is 
equally that of an adjective agreeing" with a substantive, 
and of a genitive (or possessive) case governed by a sub- 
stantive. 

Now a common genitive case can be used in two ways ; 
either as part of a term, or as a whole term {i. e., absolutely). 
— 1. As part of a term — this is John^s hat. 2. As a 
whole iQxm— this hat is John^s. 



POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 815 

And a common adjective can be used in two ways ; 
eitlier as part of a term, or as a whole term (i. e. abso- 
lutely). — 1. As part of a term — these are good hats. 
2. As a whole term — these hats are good. 

Now whether we consider my, and the w"ords like it, 
as adjectives or cases, they possess only owe of the pro- 
perties just illustrated, i. e., they can only be used as part 
of a term — this is my hat ; not this hat is my. 

And whether we consider m^^?e, and the words like it, 
as adjectives or cases, they possess only one of the pro- 
perties just illustrated, i. e., they can only be used as 
whole terms, or absolutely — this hat is mine ; not this is 
mine hat. 

For a full and perfect construction w^hether of an ad- 
jective or a genitive case, the possessive pronouns present 
the phenomenon of being, singly, incomplete, but, never- 
theless, complemxCntary to each other when taken in their 
two forms. 

§ 450. In the absolute construction of a genitive case, 
the term is formed by the single w^ord, only so far as the 
expression is concerned. A substantive is always under- 
stood from what has preceded. — This discovery is New- 
ton^s = this discovery is Newton^ s discovery. 

The same with adjectives. — This weather is fine = this 
weather is fine weather. 

And the same with absolute pronouns. — This hat is 
7}iine = this hat is my hat ; and this is a hat of mi/ie = 
this is a hat of my hats. 

§ 451. In respect to all matters of syntax considered 
exclusively, it is so thoroughly a matter of indifference 
whether a word be an adjective or a genitive case that 
Wallis considers the forms in -'5, like father^s, not as 
genitive cases but as adjectives. Looking to the logic 
Df the question alone he is right, and looking to the 



316 POSSESSIYE PEONOUKS. 

practical syntax of tlie question lie is right also. He is 
only wrong on tlie etymological side of the question. 

" ]S"omiaa substantiva apud nos nullum vel generum vel casuum dis- 
crimen sortiuntui-." — p. 16. 

" Duo sunt adjectivorum genera, a substantivis immediate descendentia, 
quae semper substantivis suis praeponuntur. Primum quidem adjectivum 
possessivum libet appellare. Pit autem a quovis substantive, sive singulari 
sive plurali, addito -s. — Ut man's nature, the nature of man, natura 
humana vel hominis ; men's nature, natura hmnana vel bominum ; Virgil's 
poems, the poems of Virgil, poemata Yii-gilii vel YirgUiana." — p. 89. 



RELATIVE PKONOUNS. 317 



CHAPTER IX. 



THE RELATIVE PE-ONOUNS. 



§ 452. It is necessary that the relative be in the same 
gender as the antecedent — the man who — the woman loho 
— the thing which. 

§. 453. It is necessary that the relative be in the same 
number with the antecedent. 

§ 454. It is not necessary for the relative to be in the 
same case with its antecedent. 

1. John, who trusts me, comes here. 

2. John, whom I trust, comes here. 

3. John, whose confidence I possess, comes here. 

4. I trust John who trusts me. 

§ 455. The reason why the relative must agree with 
its antecedent in both number and gender, whilst it need 
not agree with it in case, is found in the following observa- 
tions. 

1. All sentences containing a relative contain two 
verbs — John who (1) trusts me (2) comes here. 

2. Two verbs express two actions — (1) trust (2) come. 

3. Whilst, however, the actions are two in number, 
the person or thing which does or suffers them is single 
— John. 

3. He {she or it) is single ea: vi termini. The relative 
expresses the identity/ between the subjects (or objects) 



313 RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

of the two actions. Thus who = John, or is another name 
for John. 

5. Things and persons that are one and the same, are 
of one and the . same gender. The Johii who trusts is 
necessarily of the same gender with the John who comes. 

6. Things and persons that are one and the same, are 
of one and the same number. The number of Johns who 
trust, is the same as the number of Johns who come. 
Both these elements of concord are immutable. 

7. But a third element of concord is not immutable. 
The person or thing that is an agent in the one part of the 
sentence, may be the object of an action in the other. The 
Johji whom I trust may trust me also. Hence 

a. I trust John — John the object. 
6. John trusts me — John' the agent. 

§ 456. As the relative is only the antecedent in 
another form, it may change its case according to the 
construction. 

1. I trust John — (2) John trusts me. 

2. I trust John — (2) He trusts me. 

3. I trust John — (2) Who trusts me. 

4. John trusts me — (2) I trust John. 

5. John trusts me — (2) I trust him. 

6. John trusts me — (2) I trust whom. * 
1. John trusts me — (2) Whom I trust. 

8. ■ John — (2) Whom I trust trusts me. 

§ 45T. The books I want are here. — This is a speci- 
men of a true ellipsis. In all such phrases in full, there 
are three essential elements. 

1. The first proposition ; as the books are here. 

2. The second proposition; as I want. 

3. The word which connects the two propositions, and 
without which, they naturally make separate, independent, 
unconnected statements. 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 319 

Kow, al though true and unequivocal ellipses are 
scarce, the preceding is one of the most unequivocal 
kind — the word which connects the two propositions being 
wanting. 

§ 458. When there are two words in a clause, each 
capable of being an antecedent, the relative refers to the 
latter. 

1. Solomon the son of David that sleio Goliah. — 
This is unexceptionable. 

2. (Solomon the son of David who built the temple. — 
This is exceptionable. 

Nevertheless, it is defensible, on the supposition that 
Solomon-the-son-of- David is a single many- worded name. 



820 INTEEEOGATIVE PKONOUN 



CHAPTER X. 



ON THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN. 

§ 459. Questions are of two sorts, direct and oblique, 

Direct. — Who is lie ? 

Oblique. — Wlio do you say that he is ? 

All difficulties about the cases of the interrogative pro- 
noun may be determined by framing an answer, and ob- 
serving the case of the word with which the interrogative 
coincides. Whatever be the case of this word will also be 
the case of the interrogative. 

DIRECT. 

Qu. W7io is this ? — Ans. I. 

Qu. Whose is this ? — Aris. His. 

Qu. Whom do you seek ? — Ans. Him. 

OBLIQUE. 

Qu. Who do you say that it is ? — Ans. He, 

Qu. Whose do you say that it is ? — Ans. His. 

Qu. Whom do you say that they seek ? — Ans. Him. 

Note. — The answer should always be made by means 
of a pronoun, as by so doiiig we distinguish the accusative 
case from the nominative. 

Note. — And, if necessary, it should be made in full. 
Thus the full answer to whom do you say that they seek 1 
is, I say that they seek him. 

§ 460. Nevertheless, such expressions as whom do 



INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN. 821 

they say that it is 7 are common, especially in oblique 
questions. , 

" And he axed him and seide, whom seien the people that I am ? — Thei 
answereden and seiden, Jon Baptist — and he seide to hem, But whom 
seien ye that I am ?" — "Wiglif, Luke ix. 

" Tell me in sadness whom she is you love." 

Borneo and Juliet^ i. 1. 

" And as John fulfilled his course, he said, whom think ye that I am ?" 
— Acts xiii. 25. 

This confusion, however, is exceptionable. 



;22 BECIPEOCAL COXSTEUCTION. 



CHAPTER XI. 

THE RECIPROCAL CONSTRUCTION. 

§ 461. In all sentences containing tlie statement of a 
reciprocal or mutual action there are in reality two 
assertions, viz., the assertion that A. strikes (or loves) 
B., and the assertion that B. strikes (or loves) A. ; the 
action forming one, the reaction another. Hence, if 
the expressions exactly coincided with the fact signified, 
there would always be two propositions. This, howerer, 
is not the habit of language. Hence arises a more 
compendious form of expression, giving origin to an 
ellipsis of a peculiar kind. Phrases like Eteocles and 
Polynices killed each other are elliptical, for Eteocles and 
Polynices killed — each the other. Here the second pro- 
position expands and explains the first, whilst the first 
supplies the verb to the second. Each, however, is 
elliptic. 

§ 462. This is the syntax. As to the power of the 
words each and one in the expression [each other and 
one another) J I am not prepared to say that in the com- 
mon practice of the English language there is any dis- 
tinction between them. A distinction, however, if it 
existed, would give strength to our language. "Where 
two persons performed a reciprocal action on another, 
the expression might be one another ; as Eteocles and 
Polynices killed 07ie another. Where more than two 
persons were engaged on each side of a reciprocal action, 



RECIPEOCAL CONSTRUCTION. 323 

the expression might be each other ; as, the ten champions 
praised each other. 

This amount of perspicuity is attained, by different 
processes, in the French, Spanish, and Scandinavian 
languages. 

1. French. — lis {i. e., A. and B.) se battaient — Fun 
V autre, lis (A. B. C.) se battaient — les uns les autres. 
In Spanish, uno otro ^ Vun Vautre^ and unos otros = les 
uns les autres. 

2. Danish. — iJmander=the French Vun V autre ; 
whilst hverandre = les uns les autres. 



324 INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 



CHAPTER XII. 



THE INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 



§ 463. Different nations have different methods of 
expressing indeterminate propositions. 

Sometimes it is by the use of the passive voice. This 
is the common method in Latin and Greek, and is also 
current in English — dicitur, Xiyerai, it is said. 

Sometimes the verb is reflective — si dice = it says 
itself^ Italian. 

Sometimes the plural pronoun of the third person is 
used. This also is an English locution — they say = the 
world at large says. 

Einally, the use of some word = man is a common 
indeterminate expression. 

The word man has an indeterminate sense in the 
Modern German ; as man, sagt = they say. 

The word m.an was also used indeterminately in the 
Old English, although it is not so used in the Modern. 

In the Old English, the form m^an often lost the -n, 
and becameme. — " Deutsche Grammatik." This form is 
also extinct. 

§ 464. The present indeterminate pronoun is one ; as 
one says = they say = it is said = man sagt, German = 
on dit, French = si dice, Italian. 

It has been stated, that the indeterminate pronoun 
one has no etymological connection with the numeral 
one ; but that it is derived from the French on = homme 



INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 325 

= homo = man ; and tliat it has replaced tlie Old English 
man or me. 

§ 465. Two other pronouns, or, to speak more in ac- 
cordance with the present habit of the English language, 
one pronoun, and one adverb of pronominal origin, are also 
used indeterminately, viz., it and there. 

§ 466. It can be either the subject or the predicate 
of a sentence, — it is this, this is it, I a7n it, it is I. When 
it is the subject of a proposition, the verb necessarily 
agrees with it, and can be of the singular number only ; 
no matter what be the number of the predicate — it is this, 
it is these. 

When it is the predicate of a proposition, the number 
of the verb depends upon the number of the subject. 
These points of universal syntax are mentioned here for 
the sake of illustrating some anomalous forms. 

§ 467. There can only be the predicate of a subject. 
It differs from it in this respect. It follows also that it 
must differ from it in never affecting the number of the 
verb. This is determined by the nature of the subject — 
there is this, there are these. 

When we say there is these, the analogy between 
the words these and it misleads us ; the expression being 
illogical. 

Furthermore, although a predicate, there always stands 
in the beginning of propositions, i. e., in the place of the 
subject. This also misleads. 

§ 468. Although it, when the subject, being itself singu- 
lar, absolutely requires that its verb should be singular 
also, there is a tendency to use it incorrectly, and to treat 
it as a plural. Thus, in German, when the predicate is 
plural, the verb joined to the singular form es { = it) is 
plural — es sind menschen, literally translated = zV are 
men ; which, though bad English, is good German. 



32 d THE AETICLES. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

THE ARTICLES. 

§ 469. The rule of most practical importance about 
the articles is the rule that determines when the article 
shall be repeated as often as there is a fresh substantive, 
and when it shall not. 

When two or more substantives following each other 
denote the same object, the article precedes the first only. 
We say, the secretary and treasurer (or, a secretary and 
treasurer), when the two offices are held by one person. 

When two or more substantives following each other 
denote different objects, the article is repeated, and pre- 
cedes each. We say, the (or a) secretary and the (or a) 
treasurer, when the two offices are held by differert per- 
sons. 

This rule is much neglected. 



THE NUMERALS. 327 



CHAPTER XIV. 



THE NUMERALS. 



§ 470. The numeral one is naturally single. All the 
rest are naturally plural. 

Nevertheless such expressions — one two ( = one collec- 
tion of two), two threes ( = two collections of three) are le- 
gitimate. These are so, because the sense of the word is 
changed. We may talk of several ones just as we may 
talk of several aces ; and of ojie two just as of one pair. 

Expressions like the thousaiidth-and-first are incorrect. 
They mean neither one thing nor another : 1001st being 
expressed by the thousand-and-firstj and 1000th + 1st 
being expressed by the thousandth and the first. 

Here it may be noticed that, although I never found 
it to do so, the word odd is capable of taking an ordinal 
form. The thousand-and-odd-th is as good an expression 
as the thoiisand-and-eight-th. 

The construction of phrases ]JikQ\hQ thousand-and first 
is the same construction as we find in the king of Saxony^ s 
army. 

§ 471. It is by no means a matter of indifference 
whether we say the two first or the^r^^ two. 

The captains of two different classes at school should 
be called i\iQ two first hoys. The first and second boys 
of the same class should be called the^r^^ two hoys. I 
believe that when this rule is attended to, more is due to 
the printer than to the author : such, at least, is the case 
with myself 



828 VEEBS m GENEEAL. 



CHAPTER Xy. 



ON VERBS IN GENERAL. 



§ 472. For tlie purposes of syntax it is necessary to 
divide verbs into tlie five following divisions : transitive, 
intransitive, auxiliary, substantive, and impersonal. 

Transitive verbs. — In transitive verbs the action is 
never a simple action. It always affects some object or 
other, — I move my lunhs ; I strike tny enemy. The pre- 
sence of a transitive verb implies also the presence of a 
noun ; which noun is the name of the object affected. 
A transitive verb, unaccompanied by a noun, either ex- 
pressed or understood, is a contradiction in terms. The 
absence of the nouns, in and of itself, makes it intran- 
sitive. I move means, simply, I am in a state of moving. 
I strike means, simply, I am in the act of striking. 
Verbs like move and strike are naturally transitive. 

Intra7isitive verbs. — An act may take place, and yet 
no object be affected by it. To hunger ^ to thirsty to sleep ^ 
to wake, are verbs that indicate states of being, rather 
than actions affecting objects. Yerbs like hunger and 
sleep are naturally intransitive. 

Many verbs, naturally transitive, may be used as in- 
transitive, — e. g., I move, I strike, &c. 

Many verbs, naturally intransitive, may be used as 
transitives, — e. g., I ivalked the horse = Imade the horse 
walk. 

This variation in the use of one and the same verb 



VERBS IN GENERAL. 329 

is of much importance in tlie question of tlie government 
of verbs. 

A. Transitive verbs are naturally followed by some 
noun or other ; and that noun is always the name of some- 
thing affected by them as an object. 

B. Intransitive verbs are not naturally followed by 
any noun at all ; and when they are so followed, the noun 
is never the name of anything affected by them as an 
object. 

Nevertheless, intransitive verbs may be followed by 
nouns denoting the manner, degree, or instrumentality of 
their action, — I loalk luith my feet = mcedo pedibus. 

§ 473. The auxiliary verbs will be noticed fully in 
Chapter XXIII. 

§ 474. The verb substantive has this peculiarity, viz.^ 
that for all purposes of syntax it is no verb at all. / speak 
may, logically, be reduced to / am speaking ; in which 
case it is only the part of a verb. Etymologically, indeed, 
the verb substantive is a verb ; inasmuch as it is inflected 
as such: but for the purposes of construction, it is a 
copula only, i. e., it merely denotes the agreement or dis- 
agreement between the subject and the predicate. 

For the impersonal verbs see Chapter XXI. 



330 CONCOED OF VEEBS. 



CHAPTER XYI. 

THE CONCORD OF VERBS. 

§ 4T5. The yerb must agree mtli its subject in per- 
son, I walk, not / walks : he walks, not he walk. 

It must also agree with it in number, — we walk, not 
we walks : he walks, not he walk. 

Clear as tbese rules are, they require some expansion 
before they become sufficient to solve all the doubtful 
points of English syntax connected with the concord of the 
verb. 

A. It is I, pour master, who command you. Query ? 
would it is I, your master, who commands you, be cor- 
rect 7 This is an example of a disputed point of concord 
in respect to the person of the verb. 

B. The wages of sin is death. Query ? would the 
wages of sin are death be correct '1 This is an example 
of a disputed point of concord in respect to the number of 
the verb. 

§ 476. In respect to the concord of person the follow- 
ing rules will carry us through a portion of the difficulties. 

Rule. — In sentences where there is but one propo- 
sition, when a noun and a pronoun of different persons are 
in apposition, the verb agrees with the first of them, — /, 
your m^aster, comm^and you (not commands) : your mas- 
ter, I, commands you (not com^mand). 

To understand the nature of the difficulty, it is neces- 



CONCORD OF VERBS. 331 

sary to remember that subjects may be extremely com 
plex as well as perfectly simple ; and that a complex sub 
ject may contain, at one and the same time, a noun sub- 
stantive and a pronoun, — /, the keeper ; he, the merchant^ 
(fcc. 

Now all noun-substantives are naturally of the third 
person — John speaks, the men run, the commander gives 
orders. Consequently the verb is of the third person 
also. 

But the pronoun with which such a noun-substan- 
tive may be placed in apposition, may be a pronoun of 
either person, the first or second : / or thou — / the comr 
mander — thou the commander. — In this case the con- 
struction requires consideration. With which does the 
verb agree? with the substantive which requires a third 
person? or with the pronoun which requires a first or 
second ? 

Undoubtedly the idea which comes first is the leading 
idea ; and, undoubtedly, the idea which explains, qualifies, 
or defines it, is the subordinate idea : and, undoubtedly, it 
is the leading idea which determines the construction of 
the verb. We may illustrate this from the analogy of a 
similar construction in respect to number — a m,an with a 
horse and a gig m^eets me on the road. Here the ideas 
are three ; nevertheless the verb is singular. No addi- 
tion of subordinate elements interferes with the construc- 
tion that is determined by the leading idea. In the 
expression /, your m^aster, the ideas are two ; viz., the 
idea expressed by I, and the idea expressed by master. 
Nevertheless, as the one only explains or defines the 
other, the construction is the same as if the, idea were 
single. Hour master, I, is in the same condition. The 
general statement is made concerning the master, and 
it is intended to say what he does. The word / merely 



832 COXCOED OF VERBS. 

defines the expression by stating wlio the master is, 
Of the two expressions the latter is the awkwardest. 
The construction, however, is the same for both. 

From the analysis of the structure of complex subjects 
of the kind in question, combined with a rule concerning 
the position of the subject, which will soon be laid down, I 
believe that, for all single propositions, the foregoing rule 
is absolute. 

Rule. — ^In all single propositions the verb agrees in 
person with the noun (whether substantive or pronoun) 
which comes first. 

§ 477. But the expression it is I your master, who 
command (or commands) you^ is not a single proposition. 
It is a sentence containing two propositions. 

1. It is I. 

2. Who commands you. 

Here the word master is, so to say, undistributed. It 
may belong to either clause of the sentence, i. e., the whole 
sentence may be divided into 

Either — it is I your master — 

Or — your master who commands you. 

This is the first point to observe. The next is that 
the verb in the second clause {command or commands) is 
governed, not by either the personal pronoun or the sub- 
stantive, but by the relative, i. e., in the particular case 
before us, not by either / or master, but by who. 

And this brings us to the following question — with 
which of the two antecedents does the relative agree ? 
with / or with m^aster ? 

This may be answered by the two following rules ; — r- 

Rule 1. — When the two antecedents are in the 



CONCOED OF VERBS. 838 

same proposition, tlie relative agrees with the first 
Thus— 

1. It is / your master — 

2. Who command you. 

Rule 2. — "When the two antecedents are in different 
propositions, the relative agrees with the second. 
Thus— 

1. It is I— 

2. Yom- master who commands you. 

This, however, is not all. What determines whether 
the two antecedents shall be in the same or in different 
propositions ? I believe that the following rules for what 
may be called the distribution of the substantive antece- 
dent will bear criticism. 

Rule 1. That when there is any natural connection 
between the substantive antecedent and the verb governed 
by the relative, the antecedent belongs to the second 
clause. Thus, in the expression just quoted, the word 
master is logically connected with the word command; 
and this fact makes the expression. It is I your m^aster 
who commands you the better of the two. 

Rule 2. That when there is no natural connection be- 
tween the substantive antecedent and the verb governed 
by the relative, the antecedent belongs to the first clause. 
It is I, John, ivho command (not commands) you. 

To recapitulate, the train of reasoning has been as 
follows : — 

1. The person of the second verb is the person of the 
relative. 

2. The person of the relative is that of one of two 
antecedents. 

3. Of such two antecedents the relative agrees with 
the one which stands in the same proposition with itself. 



834: CONCOED OF VERBS. 

4. Which position is determined by the connection or 
want of connection between the substantive antecedent 
and the verb governed by the relative. 

Respecting the person of the verb in the first proposi- 
tion of a complex sentence there is no doubt. /. your 
master^ who commands you to make haste, am^ (not is) 
in a hurry. Here, / am in a hurry is the first 
proposition ; loho commaiids you to make haste, the 
second. 

It is not difficult to see why the construction of sen- 
tences consisting of two propositions is open to an amount 
of latitude which is not admissible in the construction of 
single propositions. As long as the different parts of a 
complex idea are contained within the limits of a single 
proposition, their subordinate character is easily dis- 
cerned. When, however, they amount to whole proposi- 
tions, they take the appearance of being independent 
members of the sentence. 

§ 478. The concord of number. — It is believed that 
the following three rules will carry us through all diffi- 
culties of the kind just exhibited. 

Rule 1. That the verb agrees with the subject, and 
with nothing but the subject. The only way to justify 
such an expression as the wages of sin is death, is to con- 
sider death not as the subject, but as the predicate; in 
other words, to consider the construction to be, death is 
the wages of sin. 

Ride 2. That, except in the case of the word there, the 
word which comes first is generally the subject. 

Rule 3. That no number of connected singular nouns 
can govern a plural verb, unless they be connected by a 
copulative conjunction. The sun and moon shine, — the 
sun in conjunction with the moon shines. 

§ 479. Plural sicbjects with singular predicates. — 



CONCOED OP VEEBS. 385 

The wages of sin are death. — Honest men are the salt of 
the earth. 

Singular subjects with plural predicates. — These con- 
structions are rarer than the preceding : inasmuch as two 
or more persons (or things) are oftener spoken of as being 
equivalent to one, than one person (or thing) is spoken of 
as being equivalent to two or more. 

Sixpence is twelve halfpennies. 
He is all head and shoulders. 
Vulnera totus erat. 
Tu es deliciae mese. 

'E«Top, krap av fioi i(T(r\ irarijp Kol 7r6Tuia A^'^TTjp, 
'il5€ K.a(riyv7}T09, av 5e fioi ^a\?ohs irapaKoiriis. 



336 GOYEENMENT OF VERBS. 



CHAPTER XYII. 

ON THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 

§ 480. The government of verbs is of two sorts, (1.) 
objective^ and (2.) modal. 

It is objective where tbe noun wbicb follows tte verb 
is tbe name of some object affected by the action of the 
verb, — as he strikes me : he wounds the enemi/. 

It is modal when the noun which follows the verb is 
not the name of any object affected by the verb, but the 
name of some object explaining the manner in which the 
action of the verb takes place, the instrument with which 
it is done, the end for which it is done, &c. 

The government of all transitive verbs is necessarily 
objective. It may also be modal, — / strike the enemy 
with the sword =ferio hostem gladio. 

The government of all intransitive verbs can only be 
modal, — / ivalk with the stick. "When we say, / ivalk the 
horse, the word walk has changed its meaning, and signi- 
fies m^ake to walk, and is, by the very fact of its being fol- 
lowed by the name of an object, converted from an intran- 
sitive into a transitive verb. 

The modal construction may also be called the adver- 
bial construction ; because the effect of the noun is akin 
to that of an adverb, — / fight with bravery = / fight 
bravely : he walks a king = he-walks regally. The modal 
(or adverbial) construction, sometimes takes the appear- 
ance of the objective : inasmuch as intransitive verbs are 



GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 337 

frequently followed by a substantive, e. g.^ to sleep the 
sleep of the righteous. Here, nevertheless, this is no 
proof of government. For a verb to be capable of go- 
verning an objective case, it must be a verb signifying an 
action affecting an object; wliich is not tlie case here. 
The sentence means, to sleep as the righteous sleeps or 
according to the sleep of the righteous. 



16 



338 THE PARTICIPLES. 



CHAPTER XAaiL 



ON THE PAE.TICIPLES. 



§ 481. The present participle; or tlie participle in -ing, 
must be considered in respect to its relations with the sub- 
stantive in -ing. Dying-day is, probably, no more a par- 
ticiple than Tnorning-icalk. In respect to the syntax of 
such expressions as the forthcoming, I consider that they 
are either participles or substantives. 

1. "When substantives, they are in regimen, and govern 
a genitive case — What is the meaning of the lady^s hold- 
ing up her train 7 Here the word holding = the act of 
holding. — Qiiid est significatio elevationis pallce de 
parte foeinince. 

2. When participles, they are in apposition or concord, 
and Tvould, if inflected, appear in the same case with 
the substantive, or pronoun, preceding them — What is 
the meaning of the lady holding up her train 7 Here the 
word holding = in the act of holdings and answers to the 
Latin foeminoe elevantis. — Quid est significatio foemincB 
elevantis pallam 7 

§ 482. The past participle corresponds not with the 
Greek form rvTrro/ievo^i, but with the form Terv/jL/uLevo^. 1 
am, beaten is essentially a combination, expressive not of 
present but of past time, just like the Latin sum verbera- 
tus. Its Greek equivalent is not eliil Tvirrofievof; = / 
xm a man in the act of being beaten, but elfu rervfi- 



THE PARTICIPLES. 339 

uevo^ = / am a man who has been beaten. It is past in 
respect to the action, though present in respect to the 
state brought about by the action. This essentially past 
element in the so-called present expression, / am beaten, 
will be again referred to. 



840 THE MOODS. 



CHAPTER XIX. 



ON THE MOODS. 



§ 483. The infinitive mood is a noun. The current 
rule that when tvoo verbs comq together the latter is 
placed in the infinitive ?nood, means that one verb can 
govern another only by converting it into a noun — / begin 
to move = I begi?i the act of movitig. Verbs, as verbs, 
can only come together in the way of apposition — / irri- 
tate. I beat, I talk at hi^n, I call him names, &c. 

§ 484. The construction, however, of English infini- 
tives is two fold. (1.) Objective. (2.) Gerundial. 

When one verb is followed by another without the 
preposition to, the construction must be considered to 
have grown out of the objective case, or from the form 
in -an. 

Such is the case with the follovdng words, and, pro- 
bably, with others : 

I may go, not 1 may to go. 

I miglit go, — I might to go. 

I can move, — I can to move. 

I could move, — I could to move. 

I will speak, — I will to speak. 

I would speak, — I would to speak. 

I shall wait, — I shall to wait. 

I should wait, — I should to yait. 

Let me go, — Let me to go. 

He let me go, — He let me to go. 

I do speak, — I do to speak. 



THE MOODS. 341 

I did speak, not I did to speak. 
I dare go, — I dave to go. 

I durst go, — I durst to go. 

This, in the present English, is the rarer of the two 
constructions. 

When a verh is followed by another, preceded by the 
preposition to^ the construction must be considered to have 
grown out of the so-called gerund, i. e., the form in -nne, 
i. e., the dative case — / begin to move. This is the case 
with the great majority of English verbs. 

§ 485. Imperatives have three peculiarities. (1.) They 
can only, in English, be used in the second person — go 
thou on, get you gone, (fee. : (2.) They take pronouns after, 
instead of before them : (3.) They often omit the pronoun 
altogether. 



842 THE TEI^SES. 



CHAPTER XX. 



ON THE TENSES 



§ 486. Notwithstanding its name, the present 
tense in English does not express a strictly present action. 
It rather expresses an habitual one. He s^peaks weU=he 
is a good speaker. If a man means to say that he is in 
the act of speaking, he says / am speaking'. 

It has also, especially "when combined with a subjunc- 
tive mood, a future power — / beat you (= I will heat you) 
if you donH leave off. 

§ 487. The English prseterite is the equivalent, not to 
the Greek perfect but the Greek aorist. I heat = erv-^a 
not T6TV(pa. The true perfect is expressed, in English, by 
the auxiliary have + the past participle. 



SYNTAX OF PEESONS OF VERBS. 843 



CHAPTER XXL 

SYNTAX OF THE PERSONS OF VERBS. 

§ 488. The concord of persons, — A difficulty that 
occurs frequently in the Latin language is rare in 
English. In expressions like ego et ille followed by a 
verb, there arises a question as to the person in which 
that verb should be used. Is it to be in the first person 
in order to agree with ego^ or in the third in order to 
ageee with ille 7 For the sake of laying down a rule upon 
these and similar points, the classical grammarians ar- 
range the persons (as they do the genders) according to 
their dignity^ making the verb (or adjective if it be a 
question of gender) agree with the most worthy. In re- 
spect to persons, the first is more worthy than the second, 
and the second more worthy than the third. Hence, the 
Latins said — 

Ego et Balbus susCuUmus manus. 
Tu et Balbus sustuUstis manus, 

Now, in English, the plural form is the same for all 
three persons. Hence we ssij I ajid you are friends, you 
and I are friends, I and he are friends, &c., so that 
for the practice of language, the question as to the rela 
tive dignity of the three persons is a matter of indifier- 
ence. 

Nevertheless, it may occur even in English. When- 
ever two or more pronouns of different persons, and of 
the singidar number, follow each other disjunctively- 
the question of concord arises. / or you, — you or he, 



344 SYNTAX OF PERSONS OF VERBS. 

— he or I. I believe that, in these cases, the rule is' as 
follows : — 

1. Whenever the words either or neither precede the 
pronouns, the verb is in the third person. Either you or 
I is in the ivrong ; neither you nor I is in the wrong. 

2. Whenever the disjunctive is simple [i. e. unaccom- 
panied with the word either or neither) the verb agrees 
with the^?'5^ of the two pronouns. 

/ (or he) am in the wrong". 
He (or lyis in the wrong. 
Thoii, (or he) art in the wrong. 
He (or thou) is in the wrong. 

Now, provided that they are correct, it is clear that 
the Enghsh language knows nothing about the relative 
degrees of dignity between these three pronouns ; since 
its habit is to make the verb agree with the one which 
is placed first — ^whatever may be the person. I am 
strongly inclined to believe that the same is the case in 
Latin; in which case (in the sentence ego et Balhus sus- 
tulimus manus) sustulimus agrees, in person, with ego, 
not because the first person is the worthiest, but because 
it comes first in the proposition. 

§ 489. In the Chapter on the Impersonal V«erbs, it is 
stated that the construction of 7ne-thinks is peculiar. 

This is because in Anglo-Saxon the word \incan = 
see7n. Hence me-thinks is (fiaiperal /jlol, or mihi videtur, 
and me is a dative case, not an accusative. 

The ]>enca7i = thi?ik, was, in Anglo-Saxon, a^ different 
word. 



VOICES OF VERBS. 345 



CHAPTER XXII. 



ON THE VOICES OF VERBS. 



§ 490. In Englisli there is neitlier a passive nor a 
middle voice. 

The following couplet from Dryden's " Mac Flecnoe " 
exhibits a construction which requires explanation : — 

An ancient fabric, raised to 'inform the sight, 
There stood of yore, and Barbican it Jdght. 

Here the word hight = was called, and seems to pre- 
sent an instance of the participle being used in a passive 
sense without the so-called verb substantive. Yet it does 
no such thing. The word is no participle at all ; but a 
simple preterite. Certain verbs are naturally either 
passive or active, as one of two allied meanings may pre- 
dominate. To he called is passive ; so is, to he heaten. 
But, to bear as a name is active j so is, to take a heating. 
The word, hight, is of the same class of verbs with the 
Latin vapido ; and it is the same as the Latin word, duo. 
— Barhican cluit = Barhican audivit == Barhican it 
hight. 



S46 AUXILIAEY VERBS. 



CHAPTER XXIII. 



ON THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 



§ 491. The auxiliary verbs, in Englishj play a most 
important part in the syntax of the language. They may 
be classified upon a variety of principles. The following, 
however, are all that need here be applied. 

A. Classification of auxiliaries according to their- in- 
flection or non-i7iflectional powers. — Inflectional aux- 
iliaries are those that may either replace or be replaced 
by an inflection. Thus — / am struck = the Latin ferior, 
and the Greek rvTrro/iai,. These auxiliaries are in the 
same relation to verbs that prepositions are to nouns. 
The inflectional auxiliaries are, — 

1. Have ; equivalent to an inflection in the way of 
tense — I have bitten = mo-mordi. 

2. Shall ; ditto. / sliall call = voc-abo. 

3. Will; ditto. I will call = voc-abo. 

4. ik/ay ; 'equivalent to an inflection in the way of 
mood. I am come that I m^ay see = venio ut vid-eam. 

5. Be ; equivalent to an inflection in the way of voice. 
To be beaten = verberari, rvirreadaL. 

6. J.m, art, is, are ; ditto. Also equivalent to an in- 
flection in the way of tense. / am moving = rnove-o. 

T. Was, were; ditto, ditto. I was beaten == i-TV(f)67jv. 
Iivas moving = move-bam,. 

Do, ca?i, 'must, and let, are non-inflectional auxiliaries. 

B. Classification of auxiliaries according to their 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 347 

non-auxiliary significations. — The power of the word 
have in the combination of / have a horse is clear enough. 
It means possession. The power of the same word in the 
combination I have been is not so clear ; nevertheless it is 
a power which has grown out of the idea of possession. 
This shows that the power of a verb as an auxiliary may 
be a modification of its original power ; i. e., of the power 
it has in non-auxiliary constructions. Sometimes the 
difference is very little : the word let^ in let us gc, has its 
natural sense of permission unimpaired. Sometimes it is 
lost altogether. Caii and mai/ exist only as auxiliaries. 

1. Auxiliary derived from the idea of possession — • 
have. 

2. Auxiliaries derived from the idea of existence — be, 
is, was. 

3. Auxiliary derived from the idea of future destina- 
tion, dependent upon circumstances external to the agent 
— shall. There are etymological reasons for believing that 
shall is no present tense, but a perfect. 

4. Auxiliary derived from the idea of future destina 
tion, dependent upon the volition of the agent — will. 
Shall is simply predictive ; will is predictive and pro- 
missive as well. 

5. Auxiliary derived from the idea of power, dependent 
upon circumstances external to the agent — may. 

6. Auxiliary derived from the idea of power, dependent 
upon circumstances internal to the agent — can. May is 
simply permissive ; ca?i is potential. In respect to the 
idea of power residing in the agent being the cause which 
determines a contingent action, can is in the same relation 
to may as will is to shall. 

" 3fai/ et can, cum eorum praBteritis imperfectis, might et could, 
potentiam innuunt : cum boo taraen discrimine : mai/ et yri'c/Jit vel de jure 



848 AUXILIARY VERBS. 

rel saltern de rei possibilitate, dicuntur, at caji et coidd de viribus agentis." 
—Wallis, p. 107. 

7. Auxiliary derived from tlie idea of sufferance — let. 

8. Auxiliary derived from tlie idea of necessity — 
must. 

" Must necessitatem innuit Debeo, oportet, r ecesse est urere, / mxist 
bicrji. Aliquando sed rarius in praeterito dicitui' jnicst (quasi ex niusfd 
eeu musft contractum). Sic, si de prseterito dicatur, he must (seu 
musft) he burnt, oportebat uri seu necesse habuit ut ureretur." — "Wallis, 
107. 

9. Auxiliary derived from tlie idea of action — do. 

C. Classification of auxiliary verbs in resjyect to their 
7node of construction. — Auxiliary verbs combine with 
others in three ways. 

1. With participles. — a) With the present, or active, 
participle — I am speaking : h) With the past, or passive, 
participle — I am beaten, I have beaten. 

2. With infinitives. — a) With the objective infinitive 
— / can speak : b) With the gerundial infinitive — / have 
to speak. 

3. With both infinitives and participles. — / shall 
have done, I mean to have done. 

D. Auxiliary verbs may be classified according to 
their effect. — Thus — have makes the combination in vrhich 
it appears equivalent to a tense ; be to a passive form ; 
m.ay to a sign of mood, &c. 

This sketch of the different lights under which aux- 
iliary verbs may be viewed, has been written for the sake 
of illustrating, rather than exhausting, the subject. 

§ 492. The combination of the auxiliary, have, with the 
past participle requires notice. It is, here, advisable to 
make the following classifications. 

1. The combination with the participle of a transitive 



li 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 349 

verb. — / have ridden the horse; thou hast broken the 
sword ; he has sinitten the enemy. 

2. The combination witli the participle of an intransi- 
*ive verb, — / have waited ; thou hast hungered ; he has 
slept. 

3. The combination with the participle of the verb sub- 
stantive, I have been ; thou hast been ; he has been. 

It is by examples of the first of these three divisions 
that the true construction is to be shown. 

For an object of any sort to be in the possession of a 
person, it must previously have existed. If I possess a 
horse, that horse must have had a previous existence. 

Hence, in all expressions like I have ridden a horse, 
there are two ideas, a past idea in the participle, and a 
present idea in the w^ord denoting possession. 

For an object of any sort, afi'ected in a particular 
manner, to be in the possession of a person, it must 
previously have been affected in the manner required. 
If I possess a horse that has been ridden, the riding 
must have taken place before I mention the fact of the 
ridden horse being in my possession ; inasmuch as I speak 
of it as a thing already done, — the participle, ridden, 
being in the past tense. 

/ have ridden a horse = I have a horse ridden = I have 
a horse as a ridden horse, or (changing the gender and 
dealing with the word hoj^se as a thing) I have a horse as 
a ridden thing-. 

In this case the syntax is of the usual sort. (1) 
Have = own = habeo = teneo ; (2) horse is the accusa- 
tive case equnm ; (3) ridden is a past participle agreeing 
either with horse^ or with a word in apposition with it 
understood. 

Mark the words in italics. The word ridden does 
not agree with horse, since it is of the neuter gender. 



850 AUXILIARY YEEBS. 

Keither if we said I have ridden the horses, would it agree 
with horses ; since it is of the singular number. 

The true construction is arrived at by supplying the 
word thing". I have a horse as a ridden thing = habeo 
equiim equitatiim (neuter). Here the construction is the 
same as triste lupus stahulis. 

I have horses as a ridden thing = haheo equos equita- 
tum (singular, neuter). Here the construction is — 

" Triste maturis fnigibus imbres, 

Arboribus venti, nobis Amarjllidos irse." 

or in Greek — 

Aeij/by "yvvai^iv at 5t wdiuav yoval. 

The classical writers supply instances of this use of 
have. Comperfu??i habeo, milites, verba yiris virtutem 
non addere = / have discovered = I am in possession of 
the discovery. Qn83 cum ita sint. satis de Csesare hoc 
dictum haheo. 

The combination of have with an intransitive verb is 
irreducible to the idea of possession : indeed, it is illogical. 
In I have icaited, we cannot make the idea expressed by 
the word waited the object of the verb Aare or possess. 
The expression has become a part of language by means 
of the extension of a false analogy. It is an instance of an 
illegitimate imitation. 

The combination of have with been is more illogical 
still, and is a stronger instance of the influence of an 
illegitimate imitation. In Grerman and Italian, where 
even intransitive verbs are combined with the equivalents 
to the English have ( hahen. and avere). the verb sub- 
stantive is not so combined : on the contrary, the combina- 
tions are 

Italian; io sono sfato==I am been. 
German ; ich bin geicesen = ditto. 

which is logical. 



AUXILIAEY VERBS. 351 

§ 493 I am to speak. — Three facts explain this 
idiom. 

1. The idea of direction towards an object conveyed 
by the dative case, and by combinations equivalent to it. 

2. The extent to which the ideas of necessity, obliga- 
tion, or intention are connected with the idea of something 
that has to he done, or something- towards which some 
action has a tendency. 

3. The fact that expressions like the one in question 
historically represent an original dative case, or its equi- 
valent ; since to speak grows out of the Anglo-Saxon form 
to sprecanne, which, although called a gerund, is really a 
dative case of the infinitive mood. 

When Johnson thought that, in the phrase he is to 
blame, the word blame was a noun, if he meant a noun 
in the way that culpa is a noun, his view was wrong. But 
if he meant a noun in the way that cidpare, ad culpandum, 
are nouns, it w^as right. 

§ 494. / am- to blame. — This idiom is one degree 
more complex than the previous one ; since / a??^ to 
blame = / am to be blamed. As early, however, as the 
Anglo-Saxon period the gerunds w^ere liable to be used in 
a passive sense : he is to hijigenne = noi he is to love, but 
he is to be loved. 

The principle of this confusion may be discovered by 
considering that a7i object to be blamed, is an object for 
some one to blame, an object to be loved is an object for 
some one to love. 

§ 495. / am beaten. — This is a present combination, 
and it is present on the strength of the verb am, not 
on the strength of the participle beaten, which is prae- 
terite. 

The following table exhibits the expedients on the 
part of the different languages of the Gothic stock, 



352 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 



since the loss of tlie proper passive form of the Moeso- 
Gothic. 



Language 
Mceso- Gothic . 
Old High German 
Noiker . 

Middle High German 
New High German. 
Old Saxon 
Middle Hutch 
New Hutch 
Old Frisian . 
A nglo-Saxon . 
English 
Old Norse 
Swedish . 
Danish 



Latin datur, 

gibada, 

ist, wirdit kepan, 

wirt keben, 

wirt geben, 

wird gegeben, 

is, "wirtheth gebhan, 

es, blift ghegheven, 

wordt gegeven, 

werth ejeven, 

"weorded gifen, 

is giyen, 

er gefinn, 

gifves, 

bliver, vorder given, 



Latin dafus est. 
ist, vas, varth gibans. 
was, warth kepan. 
ist keben. 
ist geben. 

ist gegeben worden. 
■was, -warth gebhan. 
waert, blef ghegeven. 
es gegeven worden. 
is ejeven, 
is gifen. 

has been given, 
hefr verit gefinn. 
bar varit gifven. 
bar varet given. 



" Deutsche Gramraatik, iv. 19.' 




H 



SYNTAX OF ADVERBS. 353 



CHAPTEU XXIV. 



THE SYNTAX OF ADVERBS. 



§ 496. The syntax of tlie adverb is simpler than that 
of any other part of speech, excepting, perhaps, that of the 
adjective. 

Adverbs have no concord. 

Neither have they any government. They seem^ in- 
deed, to have it, when they are in the comparative or 
superlative degree ; but it is merely apparent. In this 
is better than that, the word that is governed neither by 
better nor by than. It is not governed at all. It is 
a nominative case ; the subject of a separate proposi- 
tion. This is better {i. e., more good) than that is good. 
Even if we admit such an expression as he is stronger 
than me to be good English, there is no adverbial govern- 
ment. Than^ if it govern me at all, governs it as a pre- 
position. 

The position of an adverb is, in respect to matters of 
syntax, pre-eminently parenthetic ; i. e., it may be omitted 
without injuring the construction. He is JightiJig — noiu ; 
he iDas fighting — then; he fights — bravely ; I am almost 
— tired, (fee. 

§ 497. By referring to the Chapter on the Adverbs, 
we shall find that the neuter adjective is frequently con- 
verted into an adverb by deflection. As any neuter 
adjective may be so deflected, we may justify such 
expressions as fidl (for fidly) as conspicuous (for con- 



354 SYNTAX OF ADVEEBS. 

spicuously)^ and peculiar (for peculiarly) had grace, (fee. 
We are not, however, bound to imitate everything that we 
can justify. 

§ 498. The termination -ly was originally adjectival. 
At present it is a derivational syllable by which we 
can convert an adjective into an adverb : brave, bravely. 
When, however, the adjective ends in -ly already, the 
formation is awkward. I eat my daily bread is unex- 
ceptionable English ; / eat my bread daily is exception- 
able. One of two things must here take place : the 
two syllables ly are packed into one (the full expression 
being dai-li-ly), or else the construction is that of a neuter 
adjective deflected. 

Adverbs are convertible. The then men = ol vvv j3p6- 
Tot, &c. This will be seen more clearly in the Chapter on 
Conjunctions. 

§ 499. It has been remarked that in expressions like 
he sleeps the sleep of the righteous, the construction is 
adverbial. So it is in expressions like he walked a mile, 
it weighs a pound. The ideas expressed by m^ile and 
"pound are not the names of anything that serves as 
either object or instrument to the verb. They only 
denote the ^manner of the action, and define the meaning 
of the verb. 

§ 500. From lohence, from thence. — This is an expres- 
sion which, if it have not taken root in our language, 
is likely to do so. It is an instance of excess of 
expression in the way of syntax ; the -ce denoting direc- 
tion from a place, and the preposition doing the same. 
It is not so important to determine what this construc- 
tion is, as to suggest what it is not. It is not an 
instance of an adverb governed by a preposition. If 
the two words be dealt with as logically separate, 
whence (or thence) must be a noun = which place (or that 



SYNTAX OF ADVERBS. 855 

place) ; just as from then till now =from that time to 
this. But if (whicli is the better view) the two words be 
dealt with as one {i. e., as an improper compound) the pre- 
position fro7n has lost its natural power, and become the 
element of an adverb. 



ON PEEPOSITIOKS. 



CHAPTER XXV. 



ON PREPOSITIONS. 



§ 501. All prepositions govern an oblique case. If a 
word ceases to do this, it ceases to be a preposition. In 
tiie first of the two following sentences the word up is a 
prepo'sition, in tlie second an adverb. 

1. / climbed up the tree. 

2. / climbed iip. 

All prepositions in English, precede the noun which 
they govern. I climbed up the tree^ never / climbed the 
tree up. This is a matter not of government, but of col- 
location. It is the case in most languages ; and, from the 
frequency of its occurrence, the teim pre-position {or pre- 
fix) has originated. Nevertheless, it is by no means a 
philological necessity. In many languages the preposi- 
tions are post-positive, following their noun. 

§ 502. No preposition, in the present English, governs 
a genitive case. This remark is made, because expres- 
sions like the part of the body = pars corporis, — a piece 
of the bread - portio pajiis, make it appear as if the pre- 
position of did so. The true expression is, that the pre- 
position of followed by an objective case is equivalent in 
many instances, to the genitive case of the classical lan- 
guages. 



ON CONJUNCTIONS. 357 



CHAPTER XXYI. 



ON CONJUNCTIONS. 



§ 503. A CONJUNCTION is a part of speech wMcli con- 
nects propositions, — the day is bright, is one proposition. 
The sun shines, is another. The day is bright because 
the sun shines is a pair of propositions connected by the 
conjunction, because. 

From this it follows, that whenever there is a conjunc- 
tion, there are two subjects, two copulas, and two predi- 
cates : i. e., two propositions in all their parts. 

But this may be expressed compendiously. The sun 
shines, and the moon shines may be expressed by the sun 
and moon shiiie. 

Nevertheless, however compendious may be the ex 
pression, there are always two propositions wherever there 
is one conjunction. A part of speech that merely com- 
bines two words is a preposition, — the sun along with the 
moon shines. 

It is highly important to remember that conjunctions 
connect propositions. 

It is also highly important to remember that many 
double propositions may be expressed so compendiously as 
to look like one. When this takes place, and any ques- 
tion arises as to the construction, they must be exhibited 
in their fully expanded form, i. e., the second subject, the 
second predicate, and the second copula must be supplied. 
This can always be done from the first proposition, — 



368 ON CONJUKCTIONS. 

he likes you better than me^he likes you better than 
he likes me. The compendious expression of the second 
proposition is the first point of note in the syntax of con- 
junctions. 

§ 504. The second point in the syntax of conjunctions 
is the fact of their great convertibility. Most conjunc- 
tions have been developed out of some other part of 
speech. 

The conjunction of comparison, than^ is derived from 
the adverb of time, then : which is derived from the accu- 
sative singular of the demonstrative pronoun. 

The conjunction, that, is derived also from a demon- 
strative pronoun. 

The conjunction, therefore^ is a demonstrative pronoun 
+ a preposition. • 

The conjunction, because^ is a substantive governed by 
a preposition. 

One and the same word, in one and the same sen 
tence, may be a conjunction or preposition, as the case 
may be. 

All fled but John. — If this mean all fled except John^ 
the word but is a preposition, the word John is an accu- 
sative case, and the proposition is single. If instead of 
John, we had a personal pronoun, we should say all fled 
but him. 

All fled but John. — If this mean all fled but John 
did not fly, the word but is a conjunction, the word John 
is a nominative case, and the propositions are two in num- 
ber. If, instead of John, we had a personal pronoun, we 
should say, all fled but he. 

From the fact of the great convertibility of conjunc- 
tions it is often necessary to determine whether a word 
be a conjunction or not. If it be a conjunction, it cannot 
govern a case. If it govern a case it is no conjunction 



ON CONJUNCTIONS. 369^ 

hut a 'preposition. A conjunction cannot govern a case, 
for the following reasons, — the word that follows it inust 
be the subject of the second proposition, and as such, a 
nominative c3.se. 

§ 505. The third point to determine in the syntax of 
conjunctions is the certainty or uncertainty in the mind of 
the speaker as to the facts expressed by the propositions 
which they serve to connect. 

1. Each proposition may contain a certain, definite, 
absolute fact — the day is clear because the sun shines. 
Here there is neither doubt nor contingency of either the 
day being clear, or of the sun shining. 

Of two propositions one may be the condition of the 
other — the day ivill he clear if the sun shine. Here, al- 
though it is certain that if the sun shine the day will he 
clear., there is no certainty of the sun shining. Of the 
two propositions one only embodies a certain fact, and that 
is certain only conditionally. 

Now an action, wherein there enters any notion of un- 
certainty, or indefinitude, and is at the same time connect^ 
ed with another action, is expressed, not by the indicative 
mood, but by the subjunctive. If the sun shine (not 
shines) the day will he clear. 

Simple uncertainty will not constitute a subjunctive 
construction, — / am, perhaps, in the wrong. 

Neither will simple connection. — I am wrong, because 
you are right. 

But, the two combined constitute the construction in 
question, — if I be wrong, you are right. 

Now, a conjunction that connects two certain proposi- 
tions may be said to govern an indicative mood. 

And a conjunction that connects an uncertain proposi- 
tion with a certain one, may be said to govern a subjunc- 
tive mood. 



860 ox coxjuxcTioxs. 

The goveniment of mood is the only forin of govern- 
7)ient of which conjunctions are capable. 

§ 506. Preyious to the question of the goyemment 
of conjunctions in the '^ay of moodj it is hecessarj to 
notice certain points of agreement between them and 
the relatiye pronouns ; inasmuch as, in many cases, 
the relatiye pronoun exerts the same goyemment, in 
the way of determining the mood of the yerb, as the con- 
junction. 

Between the relatiye pronouns and conjunctions in 
general there is this point of connection, — ^both join 
propositions. Whereyer there is a relatiye, there is 
a second proposition. So there is whereyer there is a 
conjunction. 

Between certain relatiye pronouns and those particular 
conjunctions that goyern a subjunctiye mood there is also 
a point of connection. Both suggest an element of un- 
certainty or indefinitude. This the relatiye pronouns do, 
through the logical elements common to them and to the 
interrogatiyes : these latter essentially suggesting the 
idea of doubt. "Whereyer the person, or thing, connected 
with an action,, and expressed by a relatiye is indefinite^ 
there is room for the use of a subjunctiye mood. Thus — - 
"he that troubled you shall bear his judgment, whoso- 
ever he 6e." 

§ 507. By considering the nature of such words as 
ivhen, their origin as relatiyes on the one hand, and their 
conjunctional character on the other hand, we are pre- 
pared for finding a relatiye element in words like till, 
until, before, as long as, &c. These can all be expanded 
into expressions like until the ti7ne when, during the time 
ivJien, &c. Hence, in an expression like seek out his 
vnckedness till thou find (not findest) none, the principle 



ON CONJUNCTIONS. _ 361 

of the construction is nearly the same as in he that trou- 
bled you^ (fee, or vice versa* 

§ 508. In most conditional expressions the subjunctive 
mood should follow the conjunction. All the following ex- 
pressions are conditional. 

1. Except I he by Silvia in tlie night, 
There is no music in the nightingale. 

Shakspeark 
2. Let us go and sacrifice to the Lord our God, lest he fall upon 
Vfith pestUence. — Old Testament. 

3. Revenge back on itself recoils. 

Let it I reck not, so it light well aimed. 

J. Milton. 
4. If this he the case. 

5. Although my house he not so with God. — Old Testament. 

6. He shall not eat of the holy thing unless he wash his flesh with 
water. — Old Testament 

Expressions like except and unless are equally condi- 
tional with words like if and provided that, since they are 
equivalent to if — not. 

Expressions like though and although are peculiar. 
They join propositions, of which the one is a prima facie 
reason against the existence of the other : and this is the 
conditional element. In the sentence, if the children he so 
hadly hrought-up, they are not to he trusted, the had 
hringing-up is the reason for their being unfit to he 
trusted ; and, as far as the expression is concerned, is ad- 
mitted to he so. The only uncertainty lies in the question 
as to the degree of the badness of the education. The in- 
ference from it is unequivocal. 

* Notwithstanding the extent to which a relative may take the 
appearance of a conjunction, there is always one unequivocal method of 
deciding its true natm-e. The relative is always a part of the second pro- 
position. A conjunction is no part of either. 

' 17 



362 ON COXJUXCTIOXS. 

But if, instead of saying if^ we say although, and omit 
the TTord not^ so that the sentence run although the chil- 
dren he so hadly hrought-up they are to he trusted, we do 
two things : we indicate the general relation of cause and 
effect that exists between had hringing-up and unjitiiess 
for helng trusted, but we also, at the same time, take an 
exception to it in the particular instance before us. 
These remarks have been made for the sake of showing 
the extent to which words hke though, &c.j are condi- 
tional. 

It must be remembered, however, that conjunctions^ 
like the ones lately quoted, do not govern subjunctive 
moods because they are conditional, but because, in the 
particular condition which they accompany, there is an 
element of uncertainty. 

§ 509. This introduces a fresh question. Conditional 
conjunctions are of two sorts : — 

1. Those which express a condition as an actual fact, 
and one admitted as such by the speaker. 

2. Those which express a condition as a possible fact, 
and one which the speaker either does not admit, or admits 
only in a qualified manner. 

Since the children are so hadly hrought-up, &c. — This 
is an instance of the first construction. The speaker 
admits as an actual fact the had hringing*-up of the 
children. 

If the children be so hadly hrought-up, (fcc. — This is 
an instance of the second construction. The speaker 
admits as a possible (perhaps, as a probable) fact the had 
hringing-up of the children : but he does not adopt it as 
an indubitable one. 

§ 510. Now, if every conjunction had a fixed unvari 
able meaning, there would be no difficulty in determining 
whether a condition was absolute, and beyond doubt, or 



ON CONJUNCTIONS. 363 

possible^ and liable to doubt. But such is not the 
case. 

Although may precede a proposition which is admitted 
as well as one which is doubted. 

a. Although tlic cldldren are, &c. 

b. Although the children be, &c. 

If, too, may precede propositions wherein there is no 
doubt whatever implied : in other words it may be used 
instead of since. 

In some languages this interchange goes farther than 
in others ; in the Greek, for instance, such is the case with 
et, to a very great extent indeed. 

Hence we must look to the meaning of the sentence 
in general, rather than to the particular conjunction 
used. 

It is a philological fact that if may stand instead of 
si7ice. 

It is also a philological fact that when it does so it 
should be followed by the indicative mood. 

This is written in the way of illustration. What 
applies to if applies to other conjunctions as well. 

§ 511. As a point of practice, the following method of 
determining the amount of doubt expressed in a condi- 
tional proposition is useful : — 

Insert, immediately after the conjunction, one of the 
two following phrases, — (1.) as is the case ; (2.) as may 
or tnay not he the case. By ascertaining which of these 
two supplements expresses the meaning of the speaker* 
we ascertain the mood of the verb which follows. 

When the first formula is the one required, there is no 
element of doubt, and the verb should be in the indica- 
tive mood. If {as is the case), he is go?ie, I must follow 
him. 



2S4: ON CONJUXCTIONS. 

When the second formula is the one required, there-is 
an element of doubt, and the verb should be in the sub- 
junctive mood. If {as tnay or may not he the case) he 
be g-one, 1 must follow him. 

§ 512. The use of the word that in expressions like I 
eat that I may live, (fee, is a modification of the subjunc- 
tive construction, that is conveniently called potential. 
It denotes that one act is done for the sake of supplying 
the power or opportunity for the performance of another. 

The most important point connected with the powers 
of that is the so-called succession of tenses. 

§ 513. The succession of tenses. — Whenever the con- 
junction that expresses intention, and consequently con- 
nects two verbs, the second of which takes place after the 
first, the verbs in question must be in the same tense. 

I do this that I may gain by it. 
I did this that I might gain by it. 

In the Greek language this is expressed by a differ- 
ence of mood ; the subjunctive being the construction 
equivalent to may the optative to m,ight. The Latin 
idiom coincides with the English. 

A little consideration will show that this rule is abso- 
lute. Tor a man to he doing one action (in present time) 
in order that some other action may follow it (in past 
time) is to reverse the order of cause and efiect. To do 
anything in a. d. 1851, that something may result from it 
in 1850 is a contradiction ; and so it is to say / do this 
that I might gain hy it. 

The reasons against the converse construction are 
nearly, if not equally cogent. To have done anything at 
any previous time in order that a present effect may fol- 
low, is, ipso facto, to convert a past act into a present one, 
or, to speak in the language of the grammarian, to convert 



ON CONJUNCTIONS. 865 

an aorist into a perfect. To say / did this that / may 
gain hy it, is to make, by tlie very effect of the expres- 
sion, either may equivalent to might, or did equivalent to 
have done. 

/did this that /might gain. 

1 have done this that / may gain, 

§ 514. Disjunctives. — Disjunctives [or, nor) are of two 
sorts, real and nominal. 

A king or queen always rides in Engla?id. Here the 
disjunction is real ; king or queen being different names 
for different objects. In all real disjunctions the inference 
is, that if one out of two (or more) individuals (or classes) 
do not perform a certain action, the other does. 

A sovereign or supreme ruler always rides in Eng- 
land. Here the disjunction is nominal ; sovereign and 
supreme governor being different names for the same 
object. In all nominal disjunctives the inference is, that 
if an agent (or agents) do not perform a certain action 
under one name, he does (or they do) it under another. 

Nominal disjunctives are called by Harris 5z^6disjunc- 
tives. 

In the English language there is no separate word to 
distinguish the nominal from the real disjunctive. In 
Latin, vel is considered by Harris to be disjunctive, sive 
sub disjunctive. As a periphrasis, the combination in 
other words is subdisjunctive. 

Both nominal and real disjunctives agree in this, — 
whatever may be the number of nouns which they connect, 
the construction of the verb is the same as if there were 
but one — Henry, or John, or Thomas, walks (not loalk) ; 
the sun, or solar luminary, shines (not shine). The dis- 
junctive isolates the subject, however much it may be 
placed in juxtaposition with other nouns. 



366 SYNTAX OF THE NEGATIVE. 



CHAPTER XXVII. 

THE SYNTAX OF THE KEGATIVE. 

§ 515. When the verb is in the innnitiye mood, the 
EfGgatiye precedes it. — Not to advance is to retreat. 

When the verb is not in the infinitive mood, the 
negative follows it. — He advanced not. I cannot. 

This rule is absolute. It only seems to precede the 
verb in such expressions as / do not advance, I cannot 
advance, I have not advanced, &c. However, the words 
do, can, and have, are no infinitives ; and it consequently 
follows them. The word advance is an infinitive, and it 
consequently precedes it. Walhs's rule makes an equiva- 
lent statement, although difi*erently. " Adverbium ne- 
gandi 7iot (non) verbo postponitur (nempe auxiliari 
primo si adsit ; aut si non adsit auxiliare, verbo prin- 
cipali) : aliis tamen orationis partibus prasfigi solet." — P. 
113. 

That the negative is rarely used, except with an aux- 
iliary, in other words, that the presence of a negative 
converts a simple form like it hurneth not into the circum- 
locution it does not hum, is a fact in the practice of the 
English language. The syntax is the same in either ex- 
pression. 

§ 516. What may be called the distribution of the 
negative is pretty regular in English. Thus, when the 
word not comes between an indicative, imperative, or 
subjunctive mood and an infinitive verb, it almost 



SYNTAX OF THE NEGATIVE. 867 

always is takcm witli the word wliicli it follows — / can not 
eat may mean either / can — not eat {i. e., I can abstain), 
or / ca7i not — eat (^. e., I ani unable to eat) ; but, as 
stated above, it ahnost always has the latter signification. 
But not alicays. In Byron's " Deformed Transformed" 
we find the folloAYing lines : — 

Clay ! not dead but soulless, 

Though no mortal, man would choose thee, 

An immortal no less 

Deigns not to refuse thee. 

Here not to refuse = to accept ; and is probably a Gre- 
cism. To not refuse w^ould, perhaps, be better. 

The next expression is still more foreign to the English 
idiom : — 

For not to have been dipped in Lethe's lake 
Could save the son of Thetis from to die. 

Here not is to be taken with could. 

§ 517. In the present English, two negatives make an 
affirmative. / have not ?iot seen hwi = / have seen him. 
In Greek this was not the case. Duce ant 2^lures nega- 
tivce. apud Grcecos vehementius negant is a well known 
rule. The Ano;lo-Saxon idiom difi'ered from the Enojlish 
and coincided with the Greek. The French negative is 
only apparently double ; words like point, pas, mean not 
not, but at all. Je ne parte pas = / not speak at all, not 
/ not speak no. 

§ 518. Questions of appeal. — All questions imply 
want of information ; want of information may then imply 
doubt ; doubt, perplexity ; and perplexity the absence of 
an alternative. In this way, what are called, by Mr. Ar- 
nold,* questions of appeal, are, practically speaking, neg- 

* "Latin Prose Comnosition," p. 123. 



868 SYNTAX OF THE NEGATIYE. 

atives. What should I do 7 wlien asked in extreme per- 
plexity, means that nothing can well be done. In the fol- 
lowing passage we have the presence of a question instead 
of a negative : — 

Or hear'st thou (cluis, Lat.) rather pure ethereal stream, 
Whose fountain vrho {no one) shall tell ? 

Paradhe Lost. 



THE CASE ABSOLUTE. 369 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 



ON THE CASE ABSOLUTE. 



§ 519. Broadly speaking, all adverbial constructions 
are absolute. The term, however, is conveniently limited 
to a particular combination of the noun, verb, and parti- 
ciple. When two actions are connected with each other, 
either by the fact of their simultaneous occurrence, or as 
cause and effect, they may be expressed within the limits 
of a single proposition, by expressing the one by means of 
a verb, and the other by means of a noun and participle 
agreeing with each other. The door being open^ the horse 
was stolen. 

Considering the nature of the connection between the 
tAVO actions, we find good grounds for expecting a priori 
that the participle will be in the instrumental case, when 
such exists in the lansuao-e : and when not. in some case 



'O — o^ 



allied to it, i. e., the ablative or dative. 

In Latin the ablative is the case that is used absolute- 
ly. Sole orto^ claruit dies. 

In Anglo-Saxon the absolute case was the dative. This 
is logical. 

In the present English, however, the nominative is the 
absolute case. He made the best proverbs, him alone ex- 
cepted, is an expression of Tillotson's. We should now 
write he alone excepted. The present mode of expression 



370 THE CASE ABSOLUTE. 

is only to be justified by considering tlie nominative form 
to be a dative one, just as in tbe expression you are here, 
the Tvord you, altliougli an accusative, is considered as a 
nominative. A real nominative absolute is as illogical as 
arealaccusatiye case governing a verb. 



PART VL 

PEOSODY. 

§ 520. The word Prosody is lerived from a Greek 
word (prosodia) signifying accent. It is used by Latin 
and English grammarians in a wider sense, and includes 
not only tlie doctrines of accent and quantity, but also the 
laws of metre and versification. 

§ 521. Observe the accents in the following lines : — 

Then fare thee w611, mine own dear love, 

The world hath now for us 
Wo greater grief, no pain above 

The pain of parting thus. 

, Moore 

Here the syllables accented are the 2nd, 4th, 6th, 8th, 
10th, 12th, 14th, 16th, 18th, 20th, 22nd, 24th, 26th, 28th; 
that is, every other syllable. — Again, 

At the close of the daj, when the hamlet is still. 
And the mortals the sweets of forgetfulness prove, 

And when nought but the torrent is heard on the hill, 

And there's nought but the nightingale's song in the gi'ove. 

Beattie. 

Here the syllables accented are the 3rd, 6th, 9th, 12th, 
15th, 18th, 21st, 24th, 27th, 30th, 33rd, 36th, 39th, 42nd, 
45th, 48th ; that is, every third syllable. 

§ 522. Metre is a general term for the recurreiice 



372 PROSODY. 

tuithin certain intervals of syllables similarly affected-. 
The syllables that have just been numbered are similarly 
aiFected, being similarly accented. Accent is not the only 
quality of a syllable, which by returning at regular inter- 
vals can constitute metre. It is the one, however, upon 
which English metre depends. English metre essentially 
consists in the regular recurrence of syllables similarly 
accented. 

Abbot — And why' not live and act with other m€n ? 

Manfred. — Because my nature was averse from life ; 

And yet not cruel, for I would not make, 

But find a desolation : — like the wind, 

The red-hot breath of the most lone simoom, 

Which dwells but in the desert, and sweeps o'er 

The barren sands which bear no shrubs to blast, 

And revels o'er their wild and arid waves, 

And seeketh not so that it is not sought. 

But being met is deadly : such hath been 

The path of my' existence. Byron. 

§ 523. Measures. — For every accented syllable in the 
following line, write the letter a, and for every unaccented 
one, the letter x-^ so that a may stand for an accent, x for 
the absence of one^ 

The way was long, the wind was cold. 

Scott. 

or expressed symbolically 

xaxaxaxttj 
where x coincides with the^ a with way, (fcc. 

§ 524. Determine the length of the line in question. 
• — It is plain that this may be done in two ways. We 
may either measure by the syllables, and say that the 
line consists of eight syllables ; or by the accents, and 
say that it consists of four accents. In this latter case 
we take the accented syllable with its corresponding 



PROSODY. 373 

unaccented one, and, grouping the two together, deal with 
the pair at once. Now, a group of syllables thus taken 
together is called a measure. In the line in question the 
way {x a) is one measure, tvas long {x a) another, and 
so on throughout ; the line itself consisting of four mea- 
sures. 

§ 525. Trisyllabic measures. — The number of mea- 
sures consisting of two syllables, or dissyllabic measures, 
is necessarily limited to two, expressed a x and x a 
respectively. But beyond these there are in the En- 
glish language measures of three syllables, or trisyllabic 
measures. The number of these is necessarily limited to 
three. 

^ The first of these is exhibited in the word merrily 
(a X x). 

Merrily, merrily shall I live now, 

U'nder the blossom that hangs on the bough. 

Shakspeare. 

The second is exhibited by the word disable 
{x a x). 

But vainly thou warrest, 

For this is alone in 
Thy power to declare, 
That in the dim forest 
Thou heard' st a low moaning, 
And saw'st a bright lady surpassingly fair. 

COLEEIDGE. 

§ 526. The third is exhibited by the word cavalier 
{x X a). 

There's a beauty for ever unfadingly bright. 

Like the long ruddy lapse of a summer-day's night. 

MoORE, 

When grouped together according to certain rules, 
measures form lines and verses ; and lines and verses, 



874 PEOSODY. 

regularly arranged, constitute couplets, triplets, and 
stanzas, &c. 

§ 527. The expression of measures, lines, <fcc., by such 
symbols as a t, ^ a, &c., is metrical notation. 

§ 528. Rhyme. — We can have English verse without 
rhyme. We cannot have English verse without accent. 
Hence accent is an essential ; rhyme an accessory to 
metre. 

§ 529. Analysis of a p&ir of rhyming syllables. — 
Let the syllables told and bold be taken to pieces, and let 
the separate parts of each be compared. Viewed in 
reference to metre, they consist of three parts or ele- 
ments : 1. the vowel (o) ; 2. the part 'preceding the vowel 
[t and h respectively) ; 3. the parts folloioing the vowel 
(M). Now the vowel (o) and the parts following the 
vowel (Z<i) are alike in both words (old) ; but the part pre- 
ceding the vowel is different in the different words [told^ 
bold). This difference between the parts preceding the 
vowels is essential ; since, if it were not for this, the two 
words would be identical, or rather there would be but one 
word altogether. This is the case with / and eye. 
Sound for sound (although different in spelling) the two 
words are identical and, consequently, the rhyme is 
faulty. 

Again — compared with the v,^ords bold and told^ the 
words teeth and breeze have two of the elements neces- 
sary to constitute a rhyme. The vowels are alike (ee), 
whilst the parts preceding the vowels are different {br 
and t) ; and, as far as these two matters are concerned, 
the rhyme is a good one, tee and bree. Notwithstand- 
ing this, there is anything rather than a rhyme ; since 
the parts following the vowel {th and ze) instead of 
agreeing, differ. Breathe and beneath are in the same 



PROSODY. 375 

predicament, because tlie th is not sounded alike in the 
two words. 

Again — the words feel and- mill constitute only a 
false and imperfect rhyme. Sound for sound, the let- 
ters / and m (the parts preceding the vowel) are dif- 
ferent This is as it should be. Also, sound for 
sound, I and II (the parts following the voY/el) are 
identical ; and this is as it should be also : but ee and i 
(the vowels) are different, and this difference spoils the 
rhyme. None and own are in the same predicament; 
since one o is sounded as o in note^ and the other as the u 
in hut. 

From what has gone before we g.et the notion of true 
and perfect rhymes as opposed to false and imperfect ones. 
For two (or more) words to rhyme to each other, it is ne- 
cessary 

a. That the vowel be the same in both. 

h. That the parts following the vowel be the same. 

c. That the parts preceding the vowel be different. 

Beyond this it is necessary that the syllables, to form 
a full and perfect rhyme, should be accented syllables. 
Sky and lie form good rhymes, but sky and merriZy bad 
ones, and merrily and silly worse. Lines like the second 
and fourth of the following stanza are slightly exception- 
able on this score : indeed, many readers sacrifice the 
accent in the word 7nerrily to the rhyme, and pronounce 
it tnerrily . 

The witch she h€ld the hair in her hand, 

The red flame blazed high ; 
And round about the caldron stout, 

They danced right merri^?/. 

KlRKE TVniTE. 

§ 530. In matters of rhyme the letter h counts as 
nothing. High and /, hair and air, are imperfect 



876 PEOSODY. 

rhymes, because h (being no articulate sound) counts as 
nothing, and so the parts before the vowel i and a are not 
different (as they ought to be) but identical. 

"Whose generous children narrowed not their hearts 
With commerce, giv'n alone to arms and arts. 

Byron. 

§ 531. Words where the letters coincide, but the 
sounds differ, are only rhymes to the eye. Breathe and 
beneath are both in this predicament ; so also are cease 
and ease {eaze). 

In the fat age of pleasure, wealth, and ease, 
— Sprang the rank weed, and thrived with large increase. 

Pope. 

§ 532. If the sounds coincide, the difference of the 
letters is unimportant. 

Bold in the practice of mistaken rules, 
Prescribe, apply, and call their masters fools. 
They talk of principles, but notions prize, 
And all to one loved folly sacrifice. 

PoFi;. 

§ 533. Single rhymes. — An accented syllable stand- 
ing by itself, and coming under the conditions given above, 
constitutes a single rhyme. 

'Tis hard to say if greater want of sHll 
Appear in writing or in judging ill ; 
But of the two, less dangerous is the offence 
To tire the patience than mislead the sense. 
Some few in that, but thousands err in this ; 
Ten censure wrong, for one that writes 2im.iss. 

Pope. 



§ 534. Double rhymes. — An accented syllable follow- 
ed by an unaccented one, and coming under the conditions 
given above, constitutes a double rhyme. 



I 



PEOSODY. 377 

The meeting points the sacred hair dissever 
From her faur head for ever and for ever. 

Pope. 

Prove and explain a thing till all men doubt it, 
And write about it, Goddess, and about it. 

Pope. 

§ 535. An accented syllable followed by two unaccent- 
ed ones, and coming under the conditions given above, con- 
stitutes a treble rhyme. 

Beware that its fatal a,scendancy 

Do not tempt thee to mope and repine ; 
With a humble and hopeful dependency 

Still avt^ait the good pleasure divine. 
Success in a higher hedtitude, 

Is the end of what's under the Pole ; 
A philosopher takes it with gratitude, 

And believes it the best on the whole. 

Byeon. 

§ 536. Metres where there is no rhyme are called 
blank metres. 

Of man's first disobedience and the fruit 
Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste 
Brought death into the world and all our woe, 
"With loss of Eden, till one greater Man 
Restore us, and regain the blissful seat, 
Sing, Heavenly Muse ? 

Milton. 

The quality of mercy is not strained. 

It droppeth as the gentle dew from heaven 

Upon the place beneath ; it is twice bless'd. 

It blesseth him that gives, and him that takes 

Tis mightiest of the mighty, it becomes 

The throned monarch better than his crown. 

His sceptre shows the force of temporal power. 

The attribute of awe and majesty, 

Wherein doth sit the dread and fear of kings : 



378 PKOSODY. 

But mercy is above this sceptred sway ; 

It is enthroned in the hearts of kings : 

It is an attribute to God himself; 

And earthly power doth then show likest God's, 

"When mercy seasons justice. 

SriAKSPEARE. 

§ 537. The last measure in a line or verse is indiffer- 
ent as to its length. — By referring to the section upon 
single rhymes, we siiall find that the number of syllables 
is just double the number of accents ; that is, to each 
accented there is one unaccented syllable, and no more. 
Hence, with five accents, there are to each line ten sylla- 
bles. This is not the case with all verses. Some rhymes 
are double, and the last accented syllable has two unac- 
cented ones to follow it. Hence, with five accents there 
are to each line eleven syllables. Now it is in the last 
measure that this supernumerary unaccented syllable ap- 
pears ; and it is a general rule, that, in the last measure 
of any verse, supernumerary unaccented syllables can be 
admitted without destroying the original character of the 
measure. 

§ 538. See the verses in the section on double 
rhymes. Here the original character of the measure 
is :r a throughout, until we get to the words dissever and 
for ever, and afterwards to men doubt it, and about it. 
At the first view it seems proper to say that in these 
last-mentioned cases ^ a is converted into x a x. A 
difi'erent view, however, is the more correct one. Dis- 
sever and for ever, are rather x a with a syllable over. 
This extra syllable may be expressed by the sign 
iplus (+)j so that the words in point may be expressed 
by :r a + J rather than \)^ x a x. It is very clear that a 
measure whereof the last syllable is accented (that is, 
measures like x a, presume, or x x a, cavalier), can only 



PROSODY. 379 

vary from their original character on the side of excess ; 
that is, they can only be altered by the addition of fresh 
syllables. To subtract a syllable from such feet is im- 
possible ; since it is only the last syllable that is capable 
of being subtracted. If that last syllable, however, be the 
accented syllable of the measure, the whole measure is 
annihilated. Nothing remains but the unaccented syl- 
lable preceding ; and this, as no measure can subsist with- 
out an accent, must be counted as a supernumerary part 
of the preceding measure. 

§ 539. With the measures a x^ a x x^ x a x^ the case 
is different. Here there is room for syllable or syllables 
to be subtracted. 

Queen and himtress, chaste and fair, 

Now the sun is laid to sleep, 
Seated in thy silver chair, 

State in -wonted splendour keep. 
Hesperus invokes thy light. 

Goddess, exquisitely bright. 

Ben Joxson. 

In all these lines the last measure is deficient in a syl- 
lable, yet the deficiency is allowable, because each mea- 
sure is the last one of the line. The formula for express- 
ing/air, slee'p^ chair ^ (fee. is not a, but rather ax followed 
by the minus sign ( — ), or ax — . 

A little consideration will show that amongst the 
English measures, x a and x x a naturally form single, 
a X and x a x double, and a x x treble rhymes. 

§ 540. The chief metres in English are of the formula 
X a. It is only a few that are known by fixed names. 
These are as follows : — 

1. Gay^s stanza. — Lines of three measures, x a, with 
alternate rhymes. The odd {i. e. the 1st and 3rd) rhymes 
double. 



380 PEOSODY. 

'Twas vrhen the seas vrere roaring 

TTith liollovr blasts of ^viud, 
A damsel lay deploring, 

All on a rock reclined. 

2. Common odosijllahics. — Four measures, x «, \rith 
rliTme, and (unless tlie rlivmes be double) eigbt syllables 
{octo syllabcE). — Butlers Hudibras, Scott's poemSj The 
Giaour, and other poems of Lord Byron. 

3. Elegiac octosyllabics. — Same as the last, except 
that the rhymes are regularly alternate, and the verses 
arranged in stanzas. 

And on her lovers arm she leant, 

And round her waist she felt it fold, 
And far across the hills thev -vrent, 

In that new world which now is old : 
Across the hills and far away, 

Beyond their utmost purple rim, 
And deep into the dying day 

The happy princess followed him. 

Te>->-tsox, 

4. Octosyllabic triplets. — Three rhymes in succession. 
Generally arranged as stanzas. 

I blest them, and they wander'd on; 
I spoke, but answer came there none : 
The dull and bitter voice was gone. 

TZXXTSOX. 

5. Blank verse. — Pive measures, x a, without rhyme, 

Paradise Lost, Young's Night Thoughts, Cowper's 
Task. 

6. Heroic couplets. — Pive measures, x a, with pairs of 
rhymes. Chaucer, Denham, Dry den, Waller, Pope, Gold- 
smith, Cowper, Byron, Moore, Shelley, (fee. This is the 
common metre for narrative, didactic, and descriptive 
poetry. 



I 



PROSODY. 381 

7. Heroic triplets. — Five measurcSj x a. Three 
rhymes in succession. Arranged in stanzas. This metre 
is sometimes interposed among lieroic couplets. 

8. Elegiacs. — Five measures, x a; v/ith regularly 
alternate rhymes, and arranged in stanzas. 

The curfew tolls the knell of parting day, 
The lowing herds wind slowly o'er the lea, 

The ploughman homewards plods his weary way. 
And leaves the word to darkness and to me. 

Gray. 

9. Rhymes royal. — Seven lines of heroics, with the 
last two rhymes in succession, and the first five recurring 
at intervals. 

This Troilu?, in gift of curtesie, 

"With hauk on hond, and with a huge rout 
Of knightes, rode, and did her company, 

Passing all through the valley far about ; 

And further would have ridden out of doubt. 
Full faine and woe was him to gone so sone ; 
But turn he must, and it was eke to doen. 
' Chaucer. 

This metre was common with the WTiters of the 
earlier part of Queen Elizabeth's reign.- It admits of 
varieties according to the distribution of the first five 
rhymes. 

10. Ottava rima. — A metre with an Italian name, 
and borrowed from Italy, where it is used generally for 
narrative poetry. The Morgante Maggiore of Pulci, 
the Orlando Innamorato of Bojardo, the Orlando Furioso 
of Ariosto, the Gierusalemme Liberata of Tasso, are all 
written in this metre. Besides this, the two chief epics 
of Spain and Portugal respectively (the Auraucana 
and the Lusiados) are thus composed. Hence it is 
a form of poetry which is Continental rather than 



882 PEOSODY. 

English, and naturalized rather than indigenous. The 
stanza consists of eight lines of heroics, the six first 
rhyming alternately, the last two in succession. 

, Arrived there, a prodigious noise he hears, 
Which suddenly along the forest spread ; 
Whereat from out his quiver he prepares 

An arrow for his bow, and lifts his head ; 
And, lo ! a monstrous herd of swine appears, 

And onward rushes with tempestuous tread, 
And to the fountain's brink precisely pours, 
So that the giant's join'd by all the boars. 

Morgante Maggiore (Ld. Byron's Translation^ 

11. Terza ri?na. — Like the last, borrowed both in 
name and nature from the Italian, and scarcely yet 
naturalized in England. 

The Spiiit of the fervent days of old, 

When words were things that came to pass, and Thought 

Flash'd o'er the futiu-e, bidding men behold 
Their children's children's doom abeady brought 

Forth from the abyss of Time which is to be. 

The chaos of events where lie half- wrought 
Shapes that must undergo mortality : 

What tlie great seers of Israel wore within, 

That Spirit was on them and is on me : 
And if, Cassandra-like, amidst the din 

Of conflicts, none will hear, or hearing heed 

This voice from out the wilderness, the sin 
Be theirs, and my own feelings be my meed, 

The only guerdon I have ever Imown. 

12. Alexandrines. — Six measures, x a, generally (per- 
haps always) with rhyme. The name is said to be 
taken firom the fact that early romances upon the deeds 
of Alexander of Macedon, of great popularity, were 
"written in this metre. One of the longest poems in the 



PROSODY. 

Englisli language is in the Alexandrines, viz. Drayton^s 
Poly-olbion, quoted above. 

13. Speiiserian stanza. — A stanza consisting of nine 
lines, the first eight heroics, the last an Alexandrine. 

It bath been tbrougb all ages ever seen, 

That -witb tbe prize of arms and cbivalrie 
Tbe prize of beauty still liatb joined been, 

And that for reason's special privitie ; 
For either doth on other much rely. 

For he meseems most fit the fair to serve 
That can her best defend from villanie ; 

Aiid she most fit liis service doth deserve, 
That fairost is, and from her faith will never swerve. 

Spenser. 

Childe Harold and other important poems are com- 
posed in the Spenserian stanza. 

14. Service metre. — Couplets of seven measures, x a. 
This is the common metre of the Psalm versions. It 
is also called common measure, or long measure. In this 
metre there is always a pause after the fourth measure, 
and many grammarians consider that with that pause the 
line ends. According to this view, the service metre does 
not consist of two long lines with seven measures each ; 
but of four short ones, with four and three measures each 
alternately. The Psalm versions are printed so as to ex- 
hibit this pause or break. 

The Lord descended from above, | and bow'd the heavens most high, 

And underwsath his feet He cast | the darkness of the sky. 

On Cherubs and on Seraphim | full royally He rode, 

And on the wings of mighty winds | came flying all abroad. 

Sternhold and Hopkins. 

In this matter the following distinction is convenient. 
When the last syllable of the fourth measure (i. e. the 
eighth syllable in the line) in the one verse rhymes with 



884 PEOSODY. 

tlie corresponding syllable in the other, the long verse 
should be looked upon as broken up into two short ones : 
in other words, the couplets should be dealt with as a 
stanza. Where there is no rhyme except at the seventh 
measure, the verse should remain undivided. Thus : 

Turn, gentle hermit of the glen, | and guide thy lonely -way 
To where yon taper cheers the vale [ with hospitable ray — 

constitute a single couplet of two lines, the number of 
rhymes being two. But, 

Turn, gentle hermit of the dale, 

And guide thy lonely way 
To where yon taper cheers the vale 

With hospitable ray — 

(Goldsmith) 

constitute a stanza of four lines, the number of rhymes 
being four. 

15. Ballad stanza. — Service metre broken up in the 
way just indicated. Goldsmith's Edwin and Angelina, 
&c. 

16. Poulterer's measure. — Alexandrines and service 
metre alternately, Found in the poetry of Henry the 
Eighth's time. 



PART VII. 

THE DIALECTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

§ 541. Certain parts of England are named as if 
their population were preeminently Saxon rather than 
Angle] viz., Wes-^e^* ( = West Saxons), 'Essex ( = East 
Saxons), Sus-5e:27 (= South Saxons), and Middle-5e^, 
( = Middle Saxons). 

Others are named as if their population were pre- 
eminently Angle rather than Saxon ; thus, the counties 
of Norfolk and Suffolk once constituted the kingdom of the 
East Angles, and even at the present moment, are often 
spoken of as ^ast Anglia. 

§ 542, It is safe to say that the dialects of the English 
language do not coincide with the distribution of these 
terms. That parts of the Angle differ from parts of the 
Saxon districts in respect to the character of their . pro- 
vincialisms is true ; but it is by no means evident that 
they differ on that account. 

Thus, that the dialect of Hampshire, which was part 
of Wes-sex, should differ from that of Norfolk, which 
was part of East Anglia, is but natural. There is a 
great space of country between them — a fact sufficient 
to account for their respective characteristics, without 
assuming an original difference of population. Between 
the Saxons of Es-5e.r and the Anglians of Suffolk, no one 
has professed to find any notable difference. 
18 



886 DIALECTS OF EXGLISH LAXGUAGE. 

Hence, no division of tlie English dialects into those 
of Saxon or those of Angle origin, has been snc- 
cessful. 

Xeither have any peculiarities in the dialect of Kent, 
or the Isle of Wight, verified the notion of the population 
for those parts having been originally Jute. 

E^or yet has any portion of England been shoTVQ by the 
evidence of its dialects, to have been Frisian. 

§ 543. Yet the solution of such problems is one of the 
great objects of the study of provincial modes of speech. 

§ 544. That Jute characteristics vrill be sought in vain 
is the inference from §§ T — 13. 

That differential points betTreen the Angles and Saxcms 
Tnll be sought in vain is also probable. 

On the other hand, differential points between the 
'Frisians and Angles are likely to be discovered. 

§ 545. The traces of the Danes, or !^orthmen, are 
distinct ; the following forms of local names being 
irrima facie evidence (at least) of Danish or Norse 
occupancy. 

a. The combination Sk-, rather than the sound of Sh-, 
in such names as Skip-ion. rather than Ship-ion. 

h. The combination Ca-. rather than Ch-. in such 
names as CarZ-ton rather than Charl-ioTi. 

c. The termination -hy { = town habitation, occu- 
pancy.) rather than -ton. as Ash-5?/, Demble-^y, Spills-6y, 
Grims-6y, (fcc. 

d. The form Kirk rather than Church. 

e. The form Onn rather than Wor/n, as in Orms- 
head. 

In Orms-kirk and Kir-hy ve have a combination of 
Danish characteristics. 

§ 546. In respect to their distribution, the Danish 
forms are — 



DIALECTS OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 887 

At their maximum on tlie sea-coast of Lincolnshire : 



i. c, in the parts about Spills-by. 

Common, but less frequent, in Yorkshire, the North- 
ern counties of England, the South-eastern parts of Scot- 
land, Lancashire, ( Ormskirk^ Horn-6y), and parts of South 
Wales (Orm5-head, Ten-6y). 

In Orkney, and the northern parts of Scotland, tho 
Norse had originally the same influence that the Anglo- 
Saxon had in the south. — See the chapter of the Lowland 
Scotch. 

This explains the peculiar distribution of the Norse 
forms. Rare, or non-existent, in central and southern 
England, they appear on the opposite sides of the island, 
and on its northern extremity ; showing that the stream 
of the Norse population went round the island rather than 
across it. 

§ 547. Next to the search after traces of the original 
differences in the speech of the Continental invaders of 
Great Britain, the question as to the origin of the written 
language of England is the most important. 

Mr. Guest has given good reasons for believing it to 
have arisen out of a Mercian, rather than a West-Saxon 
dialect — although of the Anglo-Saxon the West- Saxon 
was the most cultivated form. 

This is confirmed by the present state of the Mercian 
dialects. 

The country about Huntingdon and Stamford is, in 
the mind of the present writer, that part of England 
where provincial peculiarities are at the 7ninimum. This 
may be explained in various ways, of which none is 
preferable to the doctrine, that the dialect for those parts 
represents the dialect out of which the literary language 
of England became developed. 

Such are the chief problems connected with the study 



S88 DIALECTS OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

of the provincial dialects of England ; tlie exhibition of 
tlie methods applicable to their investigation not being 
considered necessary in a work like the present. 

NOTE. 

That Saxon was the British name of the Germanic invaders of Great 
Britain is certain. — See § 45. 

The reasons which induce me to consider it as exclusively Briti^, i. e., 
as foreign to the Angles, are as follows, — 

a. No clear distinction has ever been drawn between, e. g., an Angle of 
Suffolk, and a Saxon of Essex. 

6. The Romans who knew, for some parts at least, every inch of the 
land occupied bj the Saxons of Germany, as long as there is reason for 
beheviug that they took theii- names from German sources, never use the 
word. It is strange to Ccesar, Strabo, Pliny, and Tacitus. Ptolemy is the 
first who uses it. 

c. Ecbert, who is said to have attached the name of England, or Land 
of Angles, to South Britain, was, himself, no Angle, but a "West-Saxon.* 

* This is worked out more fully in the " Germany of Tacitus, "with 
Ethnological Notes," by the present author. 



QUESTIONS. 389 



QUESTIONS ON PAKTS n'. V. YI. and VII. 



Part IY. 

1. "What is Jolmson's explanation of the word Etymology? Into 
what varieties does the study fall? What is the difference between 
Etymology and Syntax? 

2. How far are the following words instances of gender — hoy, he-goat, 
actress, which ? Analyze the forms what, her, its, vixen, spinster, gander, 
drahe. 

3. How far is there a dual ntimber in the Gothic tongues? What is 
the rule for forming such a plural as stags from stag ? What are the pe- 
cviliarities in monarchs, cargoes, keys, pence, geese, children, women, 
houses, paths, leaves? Of what number are the words alms, physics, 
ncivs, r idles ? 

4. To what extent have we in English a dative, an accusative, and 
insti'umental case ? Disprove the doctrine that the genitive in -s (the 
father's son) is formed ont of the combination /a^^cr his. 

5. Decline 7ne, thee, and ye. 

6. How far is there a true reflective pronoun in English ? 

7. What were the original powers and forms of she, her, it ? \VTiat 
case is him ? What is the power and origin of the in such expressions as 
all the more ? Decline he in Anglo-Saxon. Investigate the forms these 
and those, whose, what, whom, which, myself, himself, herself, such, every. 

8. What is the power (real or supposed) of the -er in over, and in 
cither ? 

9. Wliat words in the present English are explained by the following 
forms — sutiza, in Moeso-Gothic, and scearpor, neah, yldre, in Anglo-Saxon ? 
Explain the forms, better, worse, more, less. 

10. Analyze the words former, next, upmost, thirty, streamlet, sweet' 
heart, duckling. 

11. TvanaioXQ Ida ivxs Eopping. Analyze the word Wales. 

12. Exhibit the extent to which the noun partakes of the character 



890 QUESTIONS. 

of the verb, and vice versa. "Wliat were the Anglo-Saxon fonns o^ I can 
call, I begin to call ? 

13. Investigate the forms, drench, raise, v.se (the verb), clothe. 

14. Thou speaJcest. "VHiat is the peculiarity of the form? We loven, 
we love, accotint for this. 

15. Thou rannest={tu cv.ci'.rristl). Is this an unexceptionable form? 
if not, vhy? 

16. What are the moods in English? "VHiat the tenses? How far 
is the division of verbs into weak and strong tenses natural ? Account 
for the double forms sica.m and swum. Enumerate the other verbs in the 
same class. Explain the forms taught, wrought, ought, did, (from do== 
facio), did (from do==valeo), minded. 

17. Define the term irregular, so as to raise the number of irregular 
verbs, in English, to more than a hundred. Define the same term, so 
as to reduce them to none. Explain the form coidd. 

18. "WTiat is the construction of meseewis and methinJcs? Illustrate 
the future power of be. Werden in German means become — ^in what 
form does the word appear in English ? 

19. To err is human, — the rising in the 2s"orth. Explain these con- 
structions. Account for the second -r in forlorn ; and for the y in j- 
clcped. 

20. Explain the difference between composite and de-composite words, 
true and improper compounds. Analyze the word nightingale. 

21. How far are adverbs inflected? Distinguish between a prepo- 
sition and a conjunction. 

22. Explain the forms there, thence, yonder, and anon. 

23. What part of speech is mine ? 

24. What is the probable origin of the -d in such preterites as 
call-ei. 



Pakt V. 



1. Explain the terms Syntax, Ellipsis, Pleonasm, Zeugma, Pros to 
$e}naino7nenon, Apposition, and Convertibility, giving illustrations of each. 

2. What is the government of adjectives ? 
3 What is the consti-uction in — 

or, Rob me the Exchequer. — Shakspil^ee. 

b. Mount ye on horseback, 

c. His mother. 



QUESTIONS. 391 

d. If tlie salt have lost his savour. 

e. Myself is weak. 
/. This is mine. 

4. "What are the concords between the relative and antecedent? 
How far is, whom do thej saj that I am, an exceptionable expression ? 

5. Etcocles andJPolynices killed each other. "What is the construction 
here ? Us se battaient, Vun V autre — lis se hattaient, les uns les autres. 
Translate these two sentences into English, My wife and little ones are 
well. What is the origin of the word ones here? It was those who 
spoJce. These was those who spoke. "Wlij ia one of those expressions cor- 
rect, and the other incorrect ? 

6. What is the difference between — 

a. The secretary and treasurer, 
and 
Tlie secretary and the treasurer ? 

What is that between — 
The first two — 

and 
The two first? 

7. What is the construction of — 

He sleeps the sleep of the rigliteous? 

8. Whether do you say — It is I your master who command you, or 
It is I your master who commands you ? 

9. Barbican it hight. Ti*anslate this into Latin, 

10. Explain in fuU the following constructions — 

a. I have ridden a horse. 
h. I am to blame. 

c. I am beaten. , 

d. A part of the body. 

e. All fled but John. 

11. 'What is meant hj ih-Q Succession of Tenses? Show the logical 
necessity of it. 

12. Or hear'st thou rather pure ethereal stream, 
Whose fountain who can tell ? — IMiltox. 

Give the meaning of this passage, and explain the figure of speech 
exhibited in the words in Italics. 

13. The door being open the steed was stolen. — In what case is 
door? 



892 QUESTIONS. 

PapvT YI. 

1. The waj Tvas long, the Tvind ^vas cold. 
Express the metre of this symbolicallj. 

2. Define rhyme. 

3. Give instances of Service metre, Blanh heroics, Alexandrines 

Part Yn. 

1. How far do the present dialects of England coincide Tvith the 
parts, that took their names from tjie Angles and the Saxons respec- 
tively. 

2. "What traces of Danish or Is'orse occupancy do "v^e find in local 
names I 



NOTES. 



* The immediate autlioritj for these descents, dates, and localities, ia 
Sharon Turner. Thej are nearly the same as those which are noticed in 
Mr. Kemble's Saxons in England. In the former writer, however, they 
are given as historical facts ; in the latter they are subjected to criticism, 
and considered as exceptionable. 

^ It is from Beda that the current opinions as to the details of the 
Anglo-Saxon invasion are taken ; especially the threefold division into 
Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. These migrations wei'e so large and numerous 
that the original coimtry of the Angles was left a desert. The distributiop 
of the three divisions over the different parts of England was alsc 
Beda's. 

The work of this important writer — the great luminary of early Eng 
land — is the Historia JEcclesiastica, a title which prepares us for a great 
preponderance of the ecclesiastical over the secular history. 

Kow Beda's date was the middle of the eighth century. 

And his locality was the monastery of "Wearmouth, in the county of 
Durham. 

Both of these facts must be borno in mind when we consider the value 
of his authority, i. e., his means of knowing, as determined by the con- 
ditions of time and place. 

Christianity was introduced among the Anglo-Saxons of Kent a.d. 
597. For the times between them and a.d. 740, we have in Mr. Kem- 
ble's Codex Diplomaticus eighty-five charters, all in Latin, and most of 
them of uncertain authenticity. They are chiefly grants of different 
kings of Kent, "VYessex, the Hwiccas, Mercia, and K'orthumberland, a few 
being of bishops. 

2 Gildas was a British ecclesiastic, as Beda was an English one 
1Q* 



894 NOTES. 

Hi a locality was K'ortli Wales : his time earlier than Beda's bj perhaps 
one hundred years. 

He states that he was born the year of the pugna Badonica, currently 
called the Battle of Bath. 

1^0 w a chronological table called Anfiales Cambrenses, places that 
event within one hundi-ed years of the supposed landing of Hengist. 

But there is no reason for believing this to be a cotemporary entry. 
Hence, all that can be safely said of GUdas is that he was about as far 
removed from the seat of the Germanic invasions, in locality, as Beda, 
wliilst in point of time he was nearer. 

As a writer he is far inferior, being pre-eminently verbose, vague, 
and indefinite. 

GUdas, as far as he states facts at all, gives the British account cf 
the conquest. 

Ko other documents have come down to our time. 

Beda's own authorities — as we learn from his introduction — were 
certain of the most learned bishops and abbots of his cotemporaries, of 
whom he sought special information as to the antiquities of their own 
estabhshments. Of cotemporary writers, in the way of authority, there 
is no mention. 

For the times between the " accredited date of Hengist and Horsa's 
landing (a.d, 449) and a.d. 597 (a period of about one hundred and fifty 
years) the only authorities are a few quotations from Solinus, Gildas, and 
a Legendary Life of St. Germanus," — Saxons in Engl. i. 27. 

* This account is from Jornandes, who is generally considered as 
the chief repertory of the traditions respecting the Gothic populations. 
He lived about a.d. 530. The Gepidse were said to be the laggards of 
the migration, and the vessel which carried them to have been left be- 
hind : and as gepanta in their language meant slow, their name is taken 
therefrom. 

^ Widukind was a monk of Corvey in Flanders, who wrote the Ec- 
clesiastical History of his monastery. 

® Geoffry of Monmouth, like Gildas, is a British authority. His date 
was the reign of Henry IL The Welsh traditions form the staple of 
Geoftry's work, for which it is the great repertory. 

' The date of this was the reign of Marcus Antoninus. Its place, 
the Danubian provinces of Rhaetia, and Pannonia. It was carried on by 
the Germans of the frontier or march — from whence the name — in al- 
liance with the Jazyges, who were undoubtedly Slavonic, and the Quadi, 
who were probably so. Its details are obscure — the chief authority 
being Dio Cassius. 

' The reign of Yalentinian was from a.d. 365 to a.d. 375. 



NOTES. 895 

* The date of this has been variously placed in a.d. 4S8, and letween 
A.D. 395 and a.d 407. Either is earlier than a.d. 449. 

1° The Saxon Chronicle consists of a series of entries from the earliest 
times to the reign of King Stephen, each under its year: the year of 
the Anglo-Saxon invasion being the usual one, i.e., a.d. 449. Tlie value 
of such a work depends upon the extent to which the chronological en- 
tries ai*e cotemporaneous with the events noticed. Where this is the 
case, the statement is of the highest historical value ; where, however, 
it is merely taken from some earlier authority, or from a tradition, it 
. loses the character of a register, and becomes merely a series of dates — 
correct or incorrect as the case may be, "Where the Anglo-Saxon Chron- 
icle really begins to be a cotemporaneous register is uncertain — all that is 
certain being that it is so for the latest, and is not so for earliest entries. 
The notices in question come under the former class. The Anglo-Saxon 
Chronicle had been edited by the Master of Trinity College, Oxford (Dr. 
Ingram), and analyzed by Miss Gurney. 

" Asserius was a learned "Welsh ecclesiastic who was invited by 
King Alfred into "Wessex, and employed by that kipg as one of hia 
associates and assistants in civilizing and instructing his subjects. 
Several works are mentioned as having been written by Asserius, but 
the only one extant is his history of King Alfred, which is a chron- 
icle of various events between the year of Alfred's birth, a.d, 849, to 
A.D. 889. 

Asserius is supposed to have died Bishop of Sherborne, a.d. 910. 

"" The compounds of the Anglo-Saxon word ware=occupants, inhabi- 
tants, are too numerous to leave any doubt as to this, and several other, 
derivations. Cant-ware=Cant-icola2^=people of Kent: IIwic-ware= 
Hviccas=the people of parts of Worcestershire,* Glostershire, and (to 
Judge from the name) of War-ioicTc&^iivQ also, 

" The Annales Saxonici, or Saxon Chronicles, embrace the history of 
Britain, between the landing of Caesar and the accession of Henry II. 
They are evidently the work of various' and successive writers, who 
were Saxon ecclesiastics. But nothing certain can be affirmed of the 
authors of their respective portions. — See Note 10. 

14 See Note 2. 

1^ Adam of Bremen was a Minor Canon of the Cathedral of Bremen, 
about the years 106*7 — 1077. He travelled in Denmark, and was in 
great favom' with King Sweyn of that coimtry. He wi'ote an Ecclesias- 
tical History of the spread of Christianity in the North, to which he 
appended a description of the geography, population, and archaeology d 
Denmark and the neighbouring countries, 

* Preserved in the name of the town Wick-war, 



396 NOTES. 

^^ Etliel-^ard was an Anglo-Saxon nobleman, wlio wrote a chronicU 
of events from the creation of the world to the death of King Edgar. 
A.D. 875. 

^^ The following is a specimen of the Frisian of Gysbert Japicx, in 
metre. It is part of a rustic song, supposed to be sung bj a peasant on 
his retm-n from a wedding feast. Date about a.d, 1650. 

" Swiet, ja swiet, is't oer 'e miete, 
'T boasMere foar e jonge lie, 
Ereftich swiet is't, sizz ik jiette, 
As it giet mei alders rie. 
Mai oars tiget 'et to 'n pleach, 
As ik 6an myn geafexmt seach." 

Translation of the same from Bosworth's AngIo-Saxo7i Dicticniary, 
p. Ixxiii. 

" Sweet, jes, sweet is over {beyond) measure, 
The marrying for the yoxmg lede {people) ; 
Most sweet is it, I say yet {once more), 
AVhen {as) it goes with the rede {counsel) of the elders. 
But otherwise it tends to a plague, 
As I saw on {by the example of) my village fellow." 

^^ Of the early constitution of states of East Friesland, we have 
a remarkable illustration in the old Frisian Laws. These are in the 
native Frisian tongue, and, except that they represent republican 
rather than monarchical institutions, are similar in form, in spmt^ to 
the Saxon. 

'^-The great blow against the sovereignty of Eome, and the one 
which probably prevented G-ermany.from becoming a Roman province, 
was struck by the Cheruscan Armmius against Quintihus Yarus, in the 
reign of Augustus. The date of the organized insurrection of Arminius 
was A.r). 9 ; the place, the neighbourhood of Herford, or Engern, in 
"Westphalia. Drawn into an inpracticable part of the country, the 
troops of Amarus were suddenly attacked and cut to pieces— consisting of 
more than three legions, " iS'ever was victory more decisive, never was 
the hberation of an oppressed people more instantaneous and complete. 
Tlu'oxighout Germany the Roman garrisons were assailed and cut off; 
and, within a few weeks after Amarus had fallen, the German soil was 
freed from the foot of an invader, 

"Had Arminius been supine or unsuccessful, om* Germanic ancestors 
would have been enslaved or exterminated in their original seats along 
the Evder and the Elbe. This island would never have borne the name of 



NOTES. 397 

England, and we, this groat English nation, whose race and language are 
now overrunning tlic earth, from one end of it to the other, would have 
been utterly cut off from existence." * 

^° Ileliand is the gerund from heliaiv^hcal, and means the Healer or 
Saviour. It is the name of an old Saxon poem, in alliterative metre, of 
the tenth or eleventh century, in the dialect supposed to have belonged 
to the parts about Essen, Cleves, and Munster in Westphalia. It is a 
sort of Gospel Harmony, or Life of Christ, taken from the Gospels. It 
has been edited by Schmeller. 

^^ Ilildubrand and Hathubrant, father and son, are two legendary 
heroes belonging to that cycle of German fiction of which Theodoric of 
Yeroua is the centre. A fragment containing an account of their hostile 
meeting, being mutually unknown, in alliterative metre, represents the 
fictional poetry of the old Saxons in the same way (though not to the 
same extent) that the Heliand represents their sacred "poetry. The 
" Hildubrand and Hathubrant " have been edited by Grimm. 

^'^ In a language which for a long time was considered to be the 
Dutch of Holland in its oldest known form, there is an imperfect transla- 
tion of the Psalms ; referred by the best writers on the subject to the 
reign of Charlemagne, and thence called the Carolinian Psalms. The 
best text of this is to be found in a Dutch periodical, the Taalkundig 
Ilagazijn. 

^^ Beowulf is by far the most considerable poem, not only in Anglo- 
Saxon, but in any old Gothic tongue. It has been admirably edited and 
translated by Mr. Kemble. The subject is the account of Beowulf, an 
Angle hero — Angle but not English, as the scene of the poem is on the 
Continent. In its present iovm it shows traces of the revision of some 
Christian Avi'iter : the basis, however, of its subject, and the manners it 
describes, are essentially Pagan. The most remarkable feature in the 
poem is the fact that no allusion is made to England — so that, Anglo- 
Saxon as the work is — it belongs to the Anglo-Saxons of Germany before 
they became English. 

''* A Gospel Harmony translated from the one of Tatian, exists in a 
dialect too little purely High German, to pass absolutely as such, yet less 
Lovj German than the Dutch of Holland. This belongs to the Middle 
Rhine, and is called Frank. 

" The Alemannic is the German of the Upper Rhine ; the dialect 
out of which the Bavarian and Swiss grew. Its chief specimens occur 
in — 

* "The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World," by Professor 
Creasy. 



893 NOTES 

a. The Glosses of Kero — 

h. The Psalms bj a monk named Notker. 

c. A life of Anno of Cologne. 

d. The Song of Solomon, by "Willeram. 

e. Musrpilli, an alliterative poem. 

/. Krist, a Life of Christ, by Otford, and others less important. 
Most of these (along with Tatian), are to be found in Schilter'a 
Tliesaurm. 



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We regard the distinguishing feature of this work to be the peculiarly 
interesting character of its matter to the general reader. This is a great 
literary as well as philosophic triumph. In the evolution of a system of 
Philosophy which demands serious attention, and a keen exercise of the in- 
tellect to fathom and appreciate, he has mingled much that is really populai 
And entertaininor. — Bochesier Democrat 



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THE ^ 

Correlation and Conservation of Forces. 

■WITH AN 

INTEODUCTION AITD BEIEF BIOGEAPHIOAL NOTICES. 
By EDWAED L. YOUMAXS, M.D. 12mo, 490 pages. 



CONTENTS. 
I. By W. E. Groye. The Correlation of Physical Forces. 
n. By Prof. Helmholtz. The Interaction of Natural Forces. 
m. By J. E. Mater. 1. Eemarks on the Forces of Inorganic Nature. 

2. On Celestial Dynamics. 

3. On the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat. 

IV. By Dr. Faraday. Some Thoughts on the Conservation of Forces. 
V. By Prof. Liebig. The Connection and Equivalence of Forces. 
VI. By Dr. Carpenter. The Correlation of the Physical and Vital Forces. 

" This work is a very welcome addition to our scientific literature, and will be 
particularly acceptable to those who wish to obtain a popular, but at the same time 
precise and clear view of what Faraday justly calls the highest law in physical scienco, 
the principle of the conservation offeree. Sufficient attention has not been paid to the 
publication of collected monographs or memoirs upon special subjects. Dr. Youmans' 
work exhibits the value of such collections in a very striking manner, and we earnestly 
hope his excellent example may be followed in other branches of science." — American 
Journal of Science. 

" It was a happy thought which suggested the publication of this volume. The 
question is often asked, and not so easily answered, "V^Tiat are the new doctrines of the 
Correlation and Conservation of Forces? In this volume we have the answer, and 
with the reasons of its chief expounders ; those who are ignorant on that theme, can 
thus question the original authorities." — Ifeio Englander. 

" "We here have the original exposition-s of the new Philosophy of Forces, accompa- 
nied by an excellent exposition of both the expositions and the expositors; the whole 
will be a rare treat to the lovers of advancing scientific thought." — Methodist 
Quarterly Beview. 

"This is, perhaps, the most remarkable book of the age. We have here the latest 
discoveries, and the highest results of thought concerning the nature, laws, and con- 
nections of the forces of the universe. N"o higher or more sublime problem can engage 
the intellect of man than is discussed by these doctors of science intent alone on arriv- 
lag at the truth." — Detroit Free Press. 

"This work presents a praiseworthy specimen of complete and faithful authorship, 
and its publication at this time will form an epoch in the experience of many thinking 
minds." — iiime. 



X>, APPLETON 60 CO:S PUBLICATIONS. 

Bryant and Stratton^s Commercal Law 

For Business Men, including Merchants, Farmers, Mechanics, etc., and 
Books of Reference for the Legal Profession. Adapted to all of 
the States of the Union. To be used as a Text-Book for Law 
Schools and Commercial Colleges, with a large variety of Practical 
Forms most commonly required in Business Transactions. By 
AMOS DEAN, LL.D., Professor of Law in the Law Department of 
the University of Albany. 1 vol., 8vo, 549 pages. 

The design of this work is to present, in a condensed form, those logical 
principles which are of the most common use in the various transactions of 
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and more imperative, as the modes and relation of business grow more com- 
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The forms appended are with a view both to illustrate and to serve the 
common purposes of business. To secure both these objects, a careful selec- 
tion has been made of a few deemed the best adapted to answer the purpose 
of the one, and meet the wants of the other. 

Education : 

InteUectual, Moral, and Physical. By HEEBERT SPENCER, Author 
of " Social Statics," " The Principles of Psychology," and " Essays : 
Scientific, Political, and Speculative." 12mo, 283 pages. 

From the Neio Yorh Teacher. 
"This work originally appeared in fom* Essays, in the British Eevic-ws. They are 
first collected and published in book form in this country. The book marks an era in 
the discussion of education. We deem it of so much importance as to deserve some- 
thing like a review in a future number. In the mean time, we commend it to the 
attention of all who wish to see the subject discussed in a profound and philosophical 
manner. The work is advertised in the present number. We are happy to learn that 
the authoi''s more elaborate works are about to be issued by subscription, in a serial 
form. The publishers of the present book will receive subscriptions in this country, 
and have alreadv the names of our leading scholars and authors." 



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ENGLISH LAHGUAaE. 



Exposition of the Grammatical Structure 
of tlie English. Language. 

By John iIuLLIGA^^, A. M. Large 12mo, 574 pages. 

Tliis work is a complete system of English Grammar, embracing not only 
all that has been developed by the later philologists, but also the results of 
years of study on the part of its author. One great advantage of this book 
is its admirable arrangement. Instead of proceeding at once' to the dr\ 
details which are distasteful to the pupil, Mr. M. commences by viewing the 
sentence as a whole, analyzing it into its proper parts, and exhibiting their 
connection ; and, after having thus parsed the sentence logically, proceeds 
to consider the individual words which compose it, m all their grammatical 
relations. 

Dictionary of the English Language. 

By Alexaxdek Eeed, A. M. 12mo, 572 pages. 

This work, which is designed for schools, has been compiled with direct 
reference to their wants, by a teacher of experience, judgment, and scholai- 
ship. It contains, in small compass and the most convenient form, the 
Pronunciation and Definitions of aU English words authorized by good 
usage; a full Vocabulary of Foreign Roots; an accented hst of Greek, 
Latin, and Scripture Proper Names ; and an Appendix, showing the pro- 
nunciation of nearly three thousand of the most important Geographical 
Names. It is philosophical in its arrangement, grouping derivatives under 
their primitives, and gives the root of every word in the language, thus 
afibrding a clear insight into comparative philology. 

Either as a work of reference, or a text-book for daily study, this Diction 
ary will be found to possess important advantages over all others. Some of 
our best scholars commend it in the strongest terms : among whom may be 
mentined Rev. Dr. HE^'ET, late of New York University; D. M. Reese, 
formerly Superintendent of Schools of New York ; and the late Bishop "Wain- 
WRiGHT. Prof. FfiOST, of Philadelphia, pronounces the plan excellent. Rev. 
AI. P. Parks, late Prof. U. S. Military Academy at West Point, says: "I 
consider it superior to any of the School Dictionaries with which I am 
acquainted." 



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